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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at |http : //books . google . com/ t-dLuc^T -^ S"*-. ^ H- . r^+L Harvard College Library THE GIFT OF EDWIN R. FAIRCHILD OF CAMBRIDGE July 12, 1924 3 2044 097 064 075 3yn>m/^ P ^- ' > INTRODUCTORY LESSONS IN ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOB USE IN INTERMEDIATE GRADES BY V/M. H. MAX^?VELL, M. A. CITY SUPBRINTBNDBNT OP SCHOOLS, CITY OF NBW YORK. NEW YOBK •:• CIKCINNATI «:• CHICAGO AMEEIOAN BOOK COMPANY H^<*-o^ "T ^ ^"^V, ^ If , ^HL HAftVARO COILEGI UBRAtt GIFT OF EO"!'^ r. TMorMMO MAXWELL'S ENGLISH SERIES First Book in English. For Use in Elementary Grades. Introductory Lessons in English Grammar. For Use in Grammar Grades. Advanced Lessons in English Grammar. For Use in Higher Grammar Classes and High Schools. Maxwell & Johnston's School Composition. For Use in Higher Grammar Classes. Maxwell & Smith's Writing in English. For Use in Higher Grammar Classes and High Schools. CoPTBiOBT, 1888, BT A. S. Barnes A Co. ooftbiobt, 1894, by american book cohpant. Max. Intro. Gram. W. p. 42 V TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. — The Sentence 11. — Kinds of Sentences . III. — ^KiNDS OF Sentences rv.— The Noun V. — Modifiers of Nouns VI.— The Verb VII. — Modifiers of Verbs VIII. — Subject and Predicate IX.— The Object X. — Analysis and Synthesis XI.— The Noun XII.— The Noun XIII. — Inflection of Nouns — ^Number XIV. — Inflection of Nouns-^Gender XV. — Inflection of Nouns — Case XVI. — Analysis and Synthesis XVII.— The Pronoun XVIII. — The Personal Pronoun XIX. — The Personal Pronoun XX. — The Interrogative Pronoun XXI. — The Conjunction •XXII. — ^CoMPOUND Subjects, Predicates XXIII. — The Adjective XXIV.— The Adjective XXV. — The Adjective ; XXVI. — Comparison of Adjectives . XXVII. — Comparison of Adjectives XXVIII. — The Preposition XXIX. — Adjective Phrase Modifiers XXX.— The Adverb . XXXI. — Comparison of Adverbs and Object rAox 1 4 6 8 10 13 14 16 18 21 25 28 80 83 84 88 40 42 45 47 50 58 55 68 60 61 64 66 69 71 74 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXXII. — ^Adverbial Phrase Modifiebs . XXXIII. — Exercises in Review XXXrV.— The Interjection XXXV. — The Predicate Adjective . XXXVI.— The Predicate Noun XXXVII. — Predicate Noun and Adjective XXXVIIL— Apposition XXXIX. — ^The Personal Pronoun XL. — ^Analysis, Synthesis, and Parsing XLI. — ^Transitive and Intransitive Verbs XLII. — ^The Active and the Passive Voice XLin. — Indicative and Imperative Modes XLIV. — Subjunctive Mode XLV. — Infinitive Mode XLVI.— Verbals .... XLVn.— Tense .... XLVTU. — ^Exercises on the Tenses XLIX. — Auxiliary Verbs L. — Regular and Irregular Verbs LI. — Oral Drill on Irregular Verbs LII. — ^Agreement of the Verb with its LIII. — Defective Verbs LI V. ^Parsing the Verb LV.— Infinitive Phrases . LVL — ^The Simple Sentence LVn. — ^Relative Pronouns . LVIII. — ^Adjective Clause Modifiers LIX. — ^Adverbial Clause Modifiers LX.— Subordinate Clauses LXI.— The Complex Sentence LXII.— The Compound Sentence LXin.— Rules of Syntax Rules for Capitals Rules for Punctuation • Subject INTRODUCTORY LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LESSON I. THE SENTENCE. When we wish to make known our thoughts we use language. We may make motions that express our thoughts. This is the language of gesture. People that are deaf and dumb use the language of gesture. With our mouths we may make sounds that express our thoughts. The sounds are united to make words^ and the words are put together to form spoken language. Again, certain marks called letters may stand for the sounds used in spoken language, and these let- ters may be arranged to form worda These words, when properly joined, form written language. In making known our thoughts, words, whether spoken or written, are put together in groups called sentences. The sentences of spoken and written language are used for only three purposes. 2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 1. To state or tell something. 2. To ask about something. 3. To express a command or an entreaty. Definition. — ^A sentence is a group of words used as a statement, a question, a command, or an en- treaty. The earth revolves. Is it far to the city? Do not tease the dog. Words may be arranged in groups and used as parts of sentences, and yet these groups may not, by themselves, make known our thoughts. Such groups of words are called phrases. A phrase is a collection of words rightly put to- gether, but not used as a statement, a question, a command, or an entreaty. On the hiU. Over the ocean wave. Covered with snow. Rule. — Begin every sentence with a capital letter^ Exercise 1. — Which of the following are sentences, and which phrases? 1. Fire burns. 9. The earth is round. 2. Full of apples. 10. May I go with you? 3. On the floor. 11. On" a square piece of velvet. 4. Take your books. 12. Why did you fail? 5. Is he well? 13. In the running water. 6. Bitten by a dog. 14. The rose is red. 7. Eating a red apple. 15. Helping his mother. 8. In the rain. 16. Sugar is sweet. THE SENTENCE. 17. Go home at once. 18. At my home by the sea. i9. During the storm. 20. Dare to be true. 21. Writing a letter. 22. When did you come? 23. life is short. 24. Wasting his time. Exercise 2. — Arrange in proper order the follow^ ing words and phrases : 1. Always, of the wind, the trees, must bear, fiercest, the blasts, taUest. 2. A mouse, the cat, gray, poor, has eaten, fierce, little. 3. At the foot, near a spring, of the hill, stood, of the water, the farm-house, clearest. 4. A few, will ring, in minutes, for the dismisgion, the bell, of school. 5. His watch, of burglars, kept, Mr. Smith, during the night, through fear, under his pillow, always. 6. Are dressed, of the year, in colors, in the faU, the most beautiful, the woods, everywhere. 7. For wild fiowers, the girls, to the woods, are going, on Saturday, of our class, with the teacher. 8. Broken from the cliff, rolled, great, into the river, with a splash, a large rock. 9. Ran, frightened, this morning, by the cars, along the street, a horse, at great speed. 10. With their mother, near the light-house, John and I, gathering pretty shells, some children, yesterday, were watch- ing, along the beach. 11. In shallow water, into the small streams, many kinds, of the year, to lay their eggs, go, in the spring, of fish, up the rivers. 12. Are fattened, on chestnuts, entirely, the hogs, and, acorns, of the country, many, in i)arts. Exercise 3. — Introduce the folUnuing phrases into senten-ces : 1. Nearly finished. 2. Very frequently 3. In John's hands. 4. In the sea. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. Over the mountain. • 6. As soon as possible. 7. Bunning along the road. 8. Around Cape Horn. 9. On the roll of honor. 10. Without his books. 11. By studying too much. 12. In the poems of Whittier. 13. Almost at home. 14. For his scJce. 15. On the top of the house. 16. From New York to London. 17. At the bottom of the sea. 18. Near the Statue of Liberty. 19. On the playground. 20. At a difficult task. LESSON II. KINDS OF SENTENCES. As you have learned, we use spoken and written language for several purposes: 1. We may know something that we wish to telL To tell it, we must use a kind of sentence called the declarative sentence. It is so called because it is used to state or declare. Declarative Sentences. ' I go to school. The rose is beautiful. He is not well. , John did not go. 2. Another person may know something that we should ourselves like to know. In order to learn about it we ask questions, and in so doing use the interrogative sentence. Interrogativb Sentences. Do you live here? Were you at school yesterday? Is he not well? , Where are you going ? KINDS OF SENTENCES. 6 8. We may wish to order, to command, or to entreat another to do something or not to do it Our language in this case takes the form of the imperative sentence. The word imperative means commoAiMng. ' Study your lesson. Imfebative J Woodman, spare that tree. Sentbnoks. I Do not kill the poor bird. . Let us go for wild flowers. Dbpinition.— A declarative sentence is a sentence that states or declares something. DErmrrioN.— An interrogative sentence is a sen- tence used to ask a question. Definition. — An imperative sentence is a sen- tence that expresses a command or an entreaty. Exercise 4. — What kind of sentence is each of the followvng^ and why f 1. Why does he come so often? 2. The snow, white and pure, covered the landscape. 3. I love them that love me. 4. Show me a place where I may rest. 5. Bemember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 6. Why should the spirit of mortal be proud? 7. Hope springs eternal in the human breast. 8. He lives longest that thinks the most. 9. Come, read to me some poem. 10. Is your task too diflacult ? 11. The earth is round like a ball or an orange. 12. Christopher Columbus sailed from Palos in August, 1492. 13. Have you ever seen a white sparrow? 14. Hush, my babe, lie still and slumber. 15. Never put off till to-morrow what you can do to-day. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LESSON III. KINDS OF SENTENCES. • The three kinds of sentences that you have just learned about are the only ones used. Sentences vary so much from the simple form, however, that it is sometimes not easy to decide to which class they belong. For example, we may utter a declaration, a question, or a command with so much earnestness, anger, sorrow, surprise, or other strong feeling, that the sentence becomes an exclamation. But the ex- clamation is still a statement, a question, or a com- mand. In writing such sentences, the feeling, if very strong, is shown by placing an exclamation point at the end. The pupil should remember, however, that it is better, as far as possible, to avoid using the exclamation point ; and that an exclamatory ques- tion should be followed by a question mark. Rule I. — At the end of every declarative a/nd every imperative sentence, expressing very strong feeling, place an exclamation point. Rule IL — At the end of every decla/rative and every imperative sentence, not expressing very strong feelvng, place a period. Rule III. — At the end of every interrogative senr tence place an interrogation point. Exercise 5. — There are five declarative, five in- KINDS OF SENTENCES. 7 terrogative^ and five imperative sentences given be- low. Punctuate and classify them. 1. Does your son attend school regularly 2. Always study your lessons carefully 3. There is no finer sport than skating 4. May John be excused from the room 5. Do not be discouraged by failure* 6. Are you always obedient to your teacher 7. Fairy stories are very pleasant reading 8. Come along to the woods for nuts 9. Did he fall into the river 10. Do not go with John 11. Spring is the most pleasant season »12. "Will you not go with us to-morrow 13. The teacher sent a letter to your father 14. There are many lions found in Africa 15. Do not be afraid of the wind and stom^ V Exercise 6. — Punctuate the following exclamon tions, and give your reason in each case. Tell which are declarative and which imperative. 1. O, send my brother back to me .^ 2. What have you done, my poor, misguided boy' 3. Dare to do right Dare to be true 4. Am I a dog that you treat me thus 5. Would that I were a boy again 6. How shameful your conduct has been 7. What a disgraceful, cowardly act it was 8. Jump for your life, my boy 9. Why, Jane, he'll set his clothes on fire 10. Where in the world have you been so long 11. Touch him at your peril, sir 12. You have deceived me most shamefully 13. What a beautiful night it is 14. How glad I am that Christmas is coming 15. Yonder is my dear, dear old home 16. How could you behave so rudely a MN&LISM GRAMMAR. LESSON IV. TH E NOUN, In the study of grammar, all the many thousand words employed in speaking and writing are arranged in a very few classes, called parts of speech. This arrangement is made by observing the different uses of words in sentences and classifying them £M5Cord- ing to these uses. One of these classes is made up of words used as the na/mes of things that we talk and writ^ about The words of this class are called nowna^ because the word n(yu/n, meajis a na/me. James game, me a stoeet ara/ngem In this sentence, James and orcmge are nouns be- cause they are names. DsFiNiTioK. — ^A noun is a word used as the name of something. ExEBOiSB 7. — Write tJie na/mes of: 1. Ten things that you see in the room. 2. Ten things that are good to eat. 3t Ten birds or fishes. 4. Ten four-footed animals. 5. Ten kinds of trees. 6. Ten articles of clothing. 7. Ten kinds of tools used by men. 8. Ten kinds of materials used in building houses. 0. Ten parts of the human body. 10. Ten things that can be seen along the street. THE NOUN. 9 ExBBOisB 8. — Write sentences m which the follow- ing words a/re used as nowas: house milk window toys blot clock bird rain button step watch river stand snow paws walk slate chain steam wrist train fish coast lock mice hand elbow lesson sail skate Exercise 9. — Fill the blanks with nouns: 1. We found the nest with some in it, but the — had flown away. 2. Because of the storm, I took an with me and wore a thick . 3. The went to the and gathered more than a of nuts. 4. He spent all his for , , and . 5. When the are late at the always requires their parents to send an . 6. Hoping to find a shorter , the left their com- {lanions at the and were lost in the . 7. The farmer warned the not to take any of his or . 8. The — - fell into the ■- and shouted for his and in a very loud . 9. A fierce owned by bit a small on the and and tore his and . 10. A hungry once saw some on a high After several to get the , the disappointed animal con- soled himseM by saying, "Well, it's no matter, I'm sure; for are a sour of ." 11. The had a in which he stored his , and . 12. The waved their , and beat their , and marched out of the . 13. and tossed a rubber until it rolled into the and was lost. 10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LESSON V. MODIFIERS OF NOUNS. A word may be joined to a noun to describe or point out the thing denoted by the noun. sweet' a sour red > cherries. the this ripe . that. 'house, my our books. Words used like sweet, sour, the, this, etc., are called modifiers. They are said to modify the nouns to which they are joined. A modifier adds something to the meaning of the noun. For example, when we say hlue eyes, we know more about the eyes spoken of than when we say eyes alone. A noun may have two or more modifiers. Clear^ sunshiny weather. Fresh, ripe berries. That poor, little, ragged boy. When two or more modifiers denoting quality are used with the same noun, separate the modifiers by commas. He is a manly, good-natured, little boy. The modifiers a or an, and the are called articles ; a or an the indefinite article, and the the definite article. Exercise 10. — Supply two or more suitable word modifiers for each of the following nouns, according to the models: MODIFIERS OF NOUNS. 11 A beautiful spring day. Larger ripe, luscious peaches. hat house morning faces mountain man ladies battle drecun elephant tree lions steeple fairy palaces lake scholar ocean beggar summer fish paper picture eagle winter Exercise 11. — Supply word modifiera of noima in the following blanks: 1. I saw ffirl crying in streeti 2. boys played with baUs. 3. flowers grow in garden. 4. child bought drum. 5. Lucy has ribbons, books, and tojrs. 6. squirrel stores away nuts to eat in winter 7. Santa Glaus visits children. 8. Bessie filled pail with sand. 9. soldiers wore uniforms. 10. ship was caught in storm. 11. baby has eyes, cheeks, and hair. 12. butterfly alighted on flower. 13. kitten lay asleep in simshine. 14. waves dashed against boat. 15. « merchant bought presents for — - daughter. Exercise 12. — Boint out the words that modify nov/nSj and tell what nov/n each modifies. 1. In place of the ugly caterpillar was a beautiful butterfly, fluttering its delicate wings. 2. Once upon a time there lived, in a fine palace at the bottom of the bright blue sea, a gentle little fairy named Peace. 3. A pretty shawl, warm and soft and gay, was wrapped aroimd the precious, wee baby. 4. A fairy workman hides in every little dimpled finger. 12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. I know a melancholy, lonesome, little boy, who lives beside the restless sea. 6. Young people should take much vigorous exercise in the open air. 7. The light warm breeze kissed the pale cheek of the sick boy. 8. A wily old fox caught the sleepy goose, and carried it oflP to the dark woods. 9. A cheery merry linnet trilled a sweet song to his dear little mate. 10. Poor simple Patty boiled yellow butter-cups to get gold out of them for her beloved mother. 11. In early spring the shy crocus lifts up her golden head, and looks about with radiant eyes. 12. The snowflakes covered the naked hedges, festooned the ragged stone walls, and built great drifts on the king's high- way. 13. Some animals sleep through the long cheerless winter, and wake up with the first warm days of spring. 14. A grand stately lady with a sweet face, bent over the dying boy and kissed him. LESSON VI. THE VERB. In order to express a thought in the form of a sentence, we need at least two kinds of words. 1. One or more words used as the name of some- thing to talk about. 2. One or more words that may be joined to the name so that something may be said. For example, to make a statement about the thing named snow^ we need another word like falls or melts. Snow falls. Snow melts. ^?PI TffJS VERB. 18 By joining the word folia or the word melts to the word snow we express a thought in the form of a sentence. We cein not form a sentence that does not contain a word used as falls and melts are used ; so that such words form a very important class. The name verb is given to such words. It is a short- ened form of the word verhu/m^ which signifies a word. The name indicates that the verb is the all- important word in a sentence. When what is said is a question, the verb gen- erally consists of two or more worda noes) ^ „^ Has) ifaUen? Definition. — A verb is a word used to say some- thing about some person or thing. Exercise 18. — Use each of tJie followmg words as a verb by jommg a nown, to it so as to form a state- ment, a question, or a command. sail howls fall cried roar fight play sew scratch ring swim study sing hite kicks * rank fly woric blow shouted shine Squeal twinkle run danced dawns grow bums squeak chirp ExBRCiSB 14. — Copy the following sentences, un- derscore the nowns, and doubly underscore the verbs. 1. The girl wrote an invitation. 2. Time hangs heavy on his hands. 3. Kind hearts are more than coronets. — T&n/n/yaon. 4. Time and tide wait for no man. 14 ENQLISH GRAMMAR. 5. And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house ; and it fell not, for it was founded upon a rock. — Ne/w Testament, 6. But in his duty prompt at every call, He watch'd and wept, he prayed and felt for all. Oliver Goldsmith. 7. As s^me tall cliff, that lifts its awful form. Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm; Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread. Eternal sunshine settles on its head. — Oliver Goldsmith. 8. He prayeth best who loveth best All things both great and small; For the dear God who loveth us. He made and loveth all.— >SamweZ Taylor Coleridge. LESSON VII. MODIFIERS OF VERBS. A modifier may be joined to a verb 'to denote how, when, or where the action is performed. (gracefully. f away. John skates -j rapidlff. The ship sailed -{ slowly. [here. V yesterday. ^ A modifier adds something to the meaning of the verb to which it belongs. For, when we say John skates slowly, the modifier slowly enlarges the idea expressed by the verb skates. When two or more modifiers without intervening words are used with the same verb, they are sepa- rated by commas. The work was done cheerfuUy^ promptly^ cmd well. MODIFIERS OF VERBS. 15 Most modifiers that denote the manner in which an action is performed end in ly. Exercise 16.— Ibznt out the modifiers that denote how the action is performed, a/nd tell what verb each modifl^es. 1. Pronounce your words distinctly and correctly. 2. A boy should obey his parents promptly and cheerfully. 3. The dog attacked him savagely and ne€u*ly killed him. 4. The snow fell steadily and silently. 5. Did he copy the letter neatly and correctly? 6. Do your work bravely and hopefully. 7. He walked slowly to the gate and went leisurely down the street. 8. I can skate fast and well. 9. Will he act wisely and speedily? 10. If you study diligently you will improve rapidly. 11. The kitten purred drowsily while May gently and lov- ingly stroked its fur. 12. The sailors worked hard and fast, and the storm raged furiously. 13. The little bird sang gayly and sweetly. 14. The soldier immediately seized his gun and boldly attacked the intruder. 15. The mother anxiously watched the child who was slowly and surely dying. Exercise 16. — Fill the blanks with words chosen from the followmg list, tell which denotes when and which where, and what verb each modifies. now ever yesterday where below then daily early hither abed once weekly often whither ashore soon sometimes seldom forward aboard late occasionally again far hence always frequently before near thence never continually there above yonder 16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. If we start , we shall be . 2. The sailors left the ship and came . 3. The paper is published and the magazine . 4. I have called to see you, but have found you ' it home. 5. The soldiers marched , and reached the fort. 6. The boy asks his mother she is going. 7. lie after sunrise,- unless you are ill. 8. The children searched and for wild flowers. 9. The sick man moaned , and ate his food. 10. I worked , and shall work to-morrow. LESSON Vlll. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. In the declarative sentence there must be : 1. Some person or thing spoken about. 2. Something said about that person or thing. The bird singps. A child sleeps. The cow eats grass. In the interrogative sentence there must be: 1. Some person or thing asked about. 2. Something asked about that person or thing. Does the bird sing? Did the child sleep? Can a cow 3at grass? In the imperative sentence there must be, either expressed or im.derstood: 1. Some person or thing commanded or entreated, 2. Words expressing the command or entreaty. {You) Bun off to school. {You) Obey your parents. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 17 In each of the examples given above, the part in italics is the subject of the sentence ; the other part is the predicate of the sentence. In the declarative sentence, the thing denoted by the subject is spoken about ; it is inquired about in the interrogative sen- . tence ; and commanded or entreated in the^ im- perative sentence. The kind of sentence most commonly used is the declarative ; and, therefore, the definitions given hereafter will relate to the declarative sentence, unless otherwise stated. Definition. — ^The subject of a sentence denotes that about which something is said. . Definition. — The predicate of a sentence is that which is said of the thing denoted by the subject. Without their modifiers, the noun that denotes that of which something is said is called the subject noun, and the verb in the predicate is called the predicate verb. Exercise 17. — Svpply svMable subjects to the fol- lowing predicates by filling the blanks : 1. mew. 4. sailed. 7. weeps. 2. baxks. 5. .feU. 8. walk. 3, scratches. 6. cried. 9. gallops. 10. will come. 11. will go to school. 12. — sawed the wood. 13. does not study. 14. will not improve. 15. received the prize. %9 ENGLISH QBAMMAB. 16. kiUed the bird. 17. broke the window. 18. was very sick. 19. Kved in the city. 20. is the capital of France. Exercise 18. — FiU the follovnng blanks vnth &witr able predicates: 1. The boy . 2. The blind man . 3. The sea . 4. Pretty flowers -^, 5. Some animals . 6. Columbus . 7. Washington . 8. Bipe peaches . 9. The fox . 10. The sun . 11. The watchful dog . 12. The studious pupil . 13. A bright fire . 14. A piece of cheese . 15 The large lake . 16. Many children . 17. The baker's wagon . 18. A Uttle fish . 19. The key . 20. A saQor's life . LESSON IX. THE OBJECT. Many verbs, when joined to a subject, make com- plete sense without the help of any other words. For example, the sense is complete when such verbs THE OBJECT. 19 as inms^ speaks, or harks are properly joined with subjects. The horse runs. The teacher speaks. The dog "ba/rks. In these sentences the action expressed by the verb has nothing to do with any thing else than the thing denoted by the subject. There are other verbs, however, that express action of a kind requiring something to receive it. When we use such words as hit, struck, or hurt, we feel at once that the . sentence telling of something that struck or hit must tell also what was struck or bitten. Thus, the sense is not complete when we say, Th^ dog hit . Joh/n struck . Ma/ry hurt . The sense is made complete by filling the blanks with the name of something that receives the action. The dog hit Charles. John struck the haU. Ma^ry hurt the bird. A word used as Charles, hall, and hird are used, is called the object of the verb, and the verbs are called transitive verbs. Transitive verbs are so called because transitive means passing over; that is, the action passes over from the actor to the person or thing that receives the action. Verbs used as rv/ns, speaks, and barks are used above, are called intransitive verbs. Without its modifiers, the noun in the object is called the object nou/n. 20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Definition. — ^A transitive verb is a verb express- ing action that is received by some person or thing. Henry studies hds lessons. The clerk copied the letter. He earned a dollar. Definition. — An intransitive verb is a verb ex- pressing being or state, or action not received by any person or thing. The mem is wise. The hdbe Meeps. The letter came. Exercise 19. — Pat a/a object after eouch verb, a/nd tell which word is the name of the actor : 1. Mary loved . 11. The boy throws 2. John saw . 12. The cat caught 3. Harry pushed . 13. Mice like . 4. Horses eat . 14. The lion devoured — 5. Kate broke . 15. The horse kicked — 6. The boy lost . 16. The child spilled 7. Squirrels climb . 17. Trank soiled r 8. Water quenches . 18. Horses draw . 9. Grocers sell . 19. Bessie swept 10. Boys like . 20. A cobbler mends — Exercise 20. — Supply subjects^ and use ea/^h of the numbered expressions as the object of a tra/asitive verb selected from this list : haA)e violated, watched, has sold, bv/med, were raMng, purchased, explained, leads, heard, should obey. Tiad stolen, should lengthen, will occupy, deserved, have opened, can enjoy, have destroyed, will gain, will Ught, arrested. 1. the sick boy's room. 2. the farmer's hay. 3. the kite's tail. 4. the teacher's praise. 5. each person's attention. 6. the morning's breeze. ANALYSIS AND SYNTMHSIS. 21 7. the lady's friend. 8. the tree's branches. 0. a sailor's life. 10. my father's house. 11. the foreigner's trunk. 12. an eagle's flight. 13. his uncle's farm. 14. the blue-bird's nest. 15. our minister's sermon. 16. the visitor's overcoat. 17. the merchant's success. 18. the driver's seat. 19. the king's command. 20. the general's orders. Exercise 21. — Use the following words in sen- tences, and tell which are used transitively and which intra/nsitively : eats drew writes crossed smiles sit reads brought spent sets hates left laughed cough kiUed scream feU crows taught studied heard bmlt chirp found threw lift arrived hammers washed LESSON X. ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. As you have already learned, every sentence must contain two parts, — a. subject and a predicate. To separate a sentence into its parts by pointing out its subject and predicate is called analysis. The word analysis means a separation into parts. As we learn about other classes of words, it will be necessary, in order to analyze a sentence, to do much more thaji merely to point out its subject and predicate. To put together parts of sentences such as sub- jects and* predicates so as to form correct sentences, is called synthesis. The word synthesis means a putting together. 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Depinition. — Analysis in grammar is the process of separating a sentence into parts according to their use. DEriNTTiON. — Synthesis in grammar is the process of constructing sentences whose parts are given, their use being known or stated. ExEBCiSE 22. — Form sentences hy joming each svb- ject given below to a suitable predicate selected from the list of predicates. SuXiectB, 1. The door was long and difficult. 2. A letter is nearly finished. 3. John's mother was not followed. 4. rebruary was brought from the spring. 5. The burglar was made of walnut. 6. The baker's bread was filled with hay. 7. My day's work came from my uncle. 8. The lesson is larger than Philadelphia. 9. The doctor's advice ascended the mountain. 10. The water in the pitcher slipped a dollar into my hand. 11. The cottage by the sea is cold and stormy. 12. The farmer's bam tried the door. 13. New York was stale and sour. 14. The traveler was blown down. 15. The gentleman wrote to the teacher. Exercise 28. — Form interrogative sentences by joining each subject given below to a suitable predi- cate. Be careful to punctuate and capitalize prop- 3rly. Sul^ecU. Predicates, 1. Thomas was occupied by Jack 2. The boys did fall yesterday d. The poor girl did punish the idle pupils ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS, 23 aiO^ects. ^ Predicatet. 4. My sister's teacher has fallen during the week 5. The grocer's wagon did receive a reward 6. The red school-house does grow in your garden 7. This beautiful tree did upset in the street 8. That piece of bread will be punished by her mother 9. The price of flour can not solve the problem LO. The lily-of-the-valley is still standing 11. New York City did return from the city promptly 12. The Statue of Liberty is the metropolis of America 13. The idle scholar will not satisfy his hunger 14. The House that Jack Built is upt lighted by electricity Exercise 24. — Analyze the following sentences by pointing out the subject and the predicate of each : 1. The little girl smiled. 2. The earth is round. 3. Time flies very swiftly. 4. George Washington was the father of his country. 5. The royal family rode to church in a beautiful carriage 6. A beautiful vase fell with >a crash to the floor. 7. The flag of the United States waved proudly aloft. 8. Very early ip the morning begin the songs of the birds. 9. After breakfast the traveler started on his journey. 10. Behind the clouds the sun is still shining. 11. At the close of the day the weary toilers rested from their labors. yl2. In slumbers of midnight the sailor boy lay. 13. Backward and forward before the gate walked a watch- ful sentinel. 14. Three score and ten years pass away very quickly. / 15. Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard. 16. Trust no future howe'er pleasant. 17. Does the moon give warmth to the earth? 18; Is the lily more beautiful than the rose? / 19. Does the tiger belong to the cat-family? /^ 20. Under a spreading chestnut-tree The village smithy stands. 24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Exercise 25. — Study the following models^ and then analyze the following sentences by diagrams, and explain the analysis: Did the careless boy break Ann's beautiful doll? Subject. Pr edicate . ^ I I 1 ^ — ■ — • S. N. boy P. Y. Did break O. N. doll I the Ann^s careless beautiful -? Explanation. — The sentence is irUerrogaUve, — it asks a question. The siUoect is ths careless boy, — ^it denotes that about which Bomething is asked. The predicate is did break Arm's bea/uUful doB,— it ex- presses what is asked. The subject noun is boy. The predicate verb is did break. The object noun is doll. The modifiers of the subject noxm are ths and careless The modifi^ers of the object noun are Ann*s and bea/utiftU. The horses easily drew the heavy load along. Subject. Predicate. P— — 1 I — n S. N. liorses P. T. drew O. N. load jThe I easily the along I heavy Explanation.— The sentence is decla^atwe,— it expresses a statement. The subject is t?ie horses, — ^it denotes that about which something is said. The predicate is dA*ew tJie 7iea/vy load along easUy,-^it ex- presses what is said. The subiject noun is horses. The predicate verb is drew. The object noun is load. THE NOUN. 25 The modifier of the suhject noun is the. The modifiera of the predicate verb are aUmg and eaaUy. The modifiers of the object noun are the and Tiea/oy, 1. That small boy won the prize. 2/ Mary often visited her sick playmate. 3. The old ferryman rowed the little boat rapidly. 4. The red fire paints the ertipty room. 5. Crusoe's companions were all quickly drowned. 6. Did you see that beautiful bird? 7. Do your whole duty bravely. 8. The children attended school reg^ularly. 9. The poor fellow will soon forget all his troubles. 10. All the birds took their flight southward. 11. The brave sailor managed his boat skillfully. 12. The faithful girl studied her lesson thoroughly, 13. John's father purchased a fine gold watch. 14. That dreary, old, stone house has no tenants. 15. Always obey your parents cheerfully. 16. Did you ever hear a skylark's song? 17. Examine your teacher's solution carefully. LESSON XI. THE NOUNc CLASSES OF NOUNS. We have learned what tioiins are, but we have yet to learn into what classes they may be divided. If every object in the world had a different name, we should need millions of words. But although the number of objects is very great, all that have any interest or importance have been named. This has been done by calling things that resemble each other by the same name. This plan has given us such 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. words aa stone^ frvM^ leafy mem. These are closS' names. Many of these classes have been separated into smaller classes. Thus, the class of things called plants has been divided into trees^ shrubs, and herbs. Each of these classes has been further divided ; trees into pine, oak^ maple, etc.; shrubs into rose, currant , gooseberry, etc.; herbs into clover, pink, geranium, etc. When several objects have the same name they are said to have a common or general name. Hence, such nouns as those given above are called common nouns. Many common nouns are composed of two or more words; as, skate-strap, lily-of-ther^alley. Definition. — ^A common noun is a noun that is used as the name of a class of things. cat, forest, hUl, fish-hook. Again, there are some things of so much impor- tance that they must have names that are not class- names. Thus, suppose your brother is far away in another city. You wish to write to him. If you put on the letter only class-names, such as brother, city, he will never get your letter. But if the city is Boston, and his name is Henry G. Brown, there need be no trouble about it. Such names are par- ticular or personal names, and they are called proper nowas. Proper nouns, like common nouns, are often com- posed of more than one word ; as, John Smith, New York City. You will notice that most things that have indi- THE NOUN, 27 vidua! names have also general names. For exam- ple, Henry Q-. Brown may be spoken of by the gen- eral names man^ person, individiuil, and perhaps by merchant, voter, citizen, etc. Definition. — A proper noun is a name that be- longs only to some particular person, place, or thing. H&n/ry, Boston, Monday, April. Rule. — Begin every proper noun with a capital letter. Exercise 26. — For each of the following class- names mention two or more individual names of things belonging to the class. country citizen discoverer person cape house general sea book carpenter merchant president clerk father governor pupil mother capital Exercise 27. — Mention two or more words that denote smaller classes of the things denoted hy the following nowas: fish animal tool dish stream quadruped cattle road feeling insect vehicle flower fruit workman time-piece oflScer building mineral bird person book document disease science Exercise 28. — Tell which are common, and which a/re proper nouns, in the following sentences: 1. On Christmas, Mary received from her mother a beauti- ful doll. flower city ocean mountain girl man river author woman boy teacher sailor poem railroad street village lake ship 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. Waiiam caught three rabbits in a hollow tree by the meadow. 3. Sicily is an island in the Mediterranean Sea. 4. The people of Russia must endure great cold in winter. 5. Albert owned a large dog called Rover, and a cat called Tabby. 6. A gentleman from Baltimore left the train at Phila- delphia. 7. Columbus sailed in three ships from Palos on the third day of August. 8. Napoleon was defeated at the battle of Waterloo, and was sent to the island of St. Helena. 9. The Mississippi rises in the State of Minnesota, and emp- ties into the Gulf of Mexico. / 10. Alexander Hamilton was kiUed in a duel by Aaron Burr. 11. Murat was a marshal of France, and was said to be the best leader of cavalry in Europe. 12. "David Copperfield" is one of the best works of fiction written by Charles Dickens. 13. There* was a little girl, who had a little curl. That hung down the middle of her forehead. 14. Then outspake brave Horatius, the captain of the gate r ''To every man upon this earth death cometh soon or late." LESSON XII. THE NOUN. CLASSES OF NOUNS. The names of things that we can look at or han- dle are easily recognized as nouns ; but there are many names of things that we can not look at or handle. Yet if they are used as the nai^ies of things that can be thought of or talked about, such names are nouns. THE NOUN. 29 Many nouns of this kind are the names of qualities; as goodness, truth, beauty, power. Since we may think about goodness, truth, etc., separated or abstracted from the things to which they belong, such words are called abstract nouns. Most abstract nouns are derived from adjectives and verbs. Some are derived from nouns. I wise From the adjectives - brief I glad hear Prom the verbs From the nouns , please I believe ( wisdom, are derived < brevity, ( gladness, ITiearing, pleasure, beUef. C chUd \ ( childhood, } friend > are derived k friendship, ( martyr ) { martyrdom. Exercise 29. — Fbint out the nouns, and tell which are abstract nouns: 1. Prompt obedience to the wishes of parents is the duty of all children. 2. It is an old maxim that honesty is the best policy. 3. The pain of parting from our friends is diminished by thoughts of the pleasure we shall feel at our return. 4. Our memories are strengthened by exercise and weakened by neglect. 5. The sound of sweet music is said to have a charm that will soothe grief and sadness. 6. Sorrow for a fault should always go before forgiveness. 7. He did his work out of respect for the wishes of his teacher. 8. We should not become despondent from failure or boast- ful from success, for life is too short for either to have long continuance. 9. The idler lost bis situation because of inattention to his employer's business. 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 10. GFood writing requires a carefiil attention to the proper fllant of the letters. 11. The day is done, and the darkness Falls from the wings of night. As a feather is wafted downward From an eagle in his flight. I see the lights of the village GFleam through the rain and the mist. And a feeling of sadness comes o'er me That my soiil can not resist: A feeling of sadness and longing. That is not akin to pain. And resembles sorrow only As the mist resembles the rain.— Xorigr/eZZow. Exercise 30. — Tell what abstract nouns are derived from the followmg words : grateful man religious humble brave frank vain girl himt weak warm candid impudent young bad poor relieve grand frecjuent fine long pious speak broad ride boy ignorant splendid drink wide fly deep cruel just hero prosperous LESSON XIII. INFLECTION OF NOUNS. NUMBER. If you examine the sentences in the preceding exercises you will notice that many words change their forms when there is a change in their usa Most nouns do this. For example, when we use the INFLECTION OF NOUNS. 81 words hat^ foXj hriife^ mouse, picmoj we mean one of the things named; but if we mean more than one, we use the forms Aate, foocea, knives^ mice, pUmos. This change in the form of a word, which comes from its being differently used, is called inflection. Definition. — Number is that form or use of a word by which it denotes one or more than one. Definition. — ^The singular number of a noim is the form or use of it that denotes one. Definition. — The plural number of a noun is the form or use of it that denotes more tJian one. Bule L — Most novms add s to the singulcur to form tTie plv/ral. books, rats, lions, inkstcmds. Bulb IL — When the migular ends in a hia&ing letter or letters, such as 8, z, sh, ch {somided as in the word church), and x, the plv/ral is formed hy adding es to the singular. hisses, adzes, sashes, latches, BuLE ni. — When the singular ends m y preceded hy a vowel, the plv/ral is formed hy addvng 8 to the smgular^ fays, keys, vdUeys, toys, gv/ys. EuLE IV. — When the smguTar ends in y preceded hy a consonant, the y is changed into i and es is added to form the plv/ral. spy^spies, sky— skies, belfry— belfries. 82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule Y.-^Most nowaa ending i/a f or fe form their plwrcula by dddmg s to the singular; some by dropping f or fe and adding vea. fifes, skiffs, cliffs, strifes, half—Ml/oea, shelf— shelves. Exercise 81. — Write the plwral of each of the fol- lowing norjma^ and give the rule: sailor apple circus river window loaf horse knife rose lake lamp dwarf donkey valley tree wolf piece beef star lash camp kiss thief sheaf watch church witness glove strife brush pony watch turkey dove eye boss lady mass Kfe muflP fly index chief tiger calf rush sigh suffix wife fox half grass bench prefix monkey story cow glass leaf coach Many nouns form their plurals not in accordance with the rules just given. There is no better way to learn these forms than to study them one by one. A few of them are given below. Exercise 32. — Study the foUowvng wordSj so that you may he able to give the plwral when you hea/r the singular, or the reverse. Bng. FfimU. mna. ^VTQlm OX oxen foot feet mouse mice penny pennies or pence goose geese cow cows or kine man men brother brothers or brethren woman women die dies or dice child children cherub cherubs or cherubim tooth teeth seraph seraphs or seraphim INFLECTION OF NOUNS. 88 LESSON XIV. INFLECTION OF NOUNS. GENDER Persons and animals are divided into two classes. Males form one class or sex, and females form the other. The name of any male is said to be a noim of the masculine gender; the name of any female is said to be a noun of the femmine gender. The name of any thing whose sex is not taken into account, or the name of any thing without life, is said to be a noun of the neuter gender. Some nouns are used either for males or for females; such as child^ parent, sheep. Such noims are said to be of the common gender, but we may generally know their gender from something that is said about them. The gender of nouns may be shown : 1. By different words, as boy, girl; man, woman. 2. By different endings, as governor, governess; actor, actress. 3. By putting before a noun of the common gen- der a word whose gender we know, as he^oat, sfie^ goat; man-servant, maidservant. Definition. — Gender is that form or use of a ' word by which it denotes sex. Definition. — The masculine gender is that form or use of a word that denotes the male sex. 34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Definition. — ^The feminine gender is that form or use of a word that denotes the female sex. Definition. — ^The neuter gender is that form or use of a word that denotes the absence of sex. Definition. — The common gender is that form or use of a word that denotes something whose sex may be either male or female. Exercise 38. — Make lists of the following words according to their gender : boy- nut governess emperor nephew lady widow girl coat king duke aimt whale maid man buU prince book uncle John bird woman tigress queen duck father ship fowl slate cat princess drake sister nun flower fish city teacher niece son monk hen lioness hat author cousin daughter lad gander LESSON XV. INFLECTION OF NOUNS. CASE. A long time ago the form of a noun used as the subject of a verb was different from that of a noun used as the object of a verb, but this is no longer so. The dog bit the cat. The hoy struck the dog. The word dog is used, in the first sentence, as subject, and in the second, as object; but the form Of the word is unchanged. The ibse of the word, how- INFLECTION OF NOUNS. 85 ever, or its relation to other words in the sentences, is different. The word dog^ in the first sentence, denotes that about which the statement is made; hence, it bears to the verb hit the relation of subject In the second sentence, dog bears the relation of ob- ject to the transitive verb struck. A word denoting that about which a statement is made is in the nominative ease. The word nomr- mative means naming, A word that bears the relation of object to a transitive verb is in the objective case. There is, however, another way in which nouns are used, and then a slight change is made in their forms. If you wish to speak of the hat that belongs to John, you do not say John hat, but John's- hat So likewise you say My father's house^ The soldiers' muskets; meaning the house belonging to your father, and the muskets belonging to the soldiers. This relation of ownership is shown by adding an apostrophe ( ' ) and s to father, and an apostrophe to soldiers, A noun used in this manner is said to be in the possessive case. Definition. — The case of a noun is that form or use of the noun that denotes its relation to other words in a sentence. The nominative case of a noun is the use of the noun in the relation of subject in a sentence. Definition.— The possessive case of a noun is thBt form of it which denotes the relation of owner- ship. 86 ENBLISH 9RAMMAR. The objective case of a noun is the use of the noun in the relation of object to a transitive verb. To give an account of a word in a sentence, by- mentioning the class to which it belongs, giving its inflections, and telling its relations to other words in the sentence, is to parse it. Exercise 34.— ir^ the following sentences, menr- tion the nouns, and tell the case of each, giving reasons. , 1. John tore Henry's book and broke Jane's slate. 2. The poor boy's leg was crushed. 3. Industry and perseverance overcome many obstacles. 4. Hens* eggs are white, but most birds* eggs are colored. 5. The dog's ears were closely cropped. 6. The teachers and pupils heard the girl's song. 7. The flowers* fragrance sweetened the air. 8. The Admiral's vessel was wrecked. 9. All our hopes and fears are ended. 10. The May-flowers open their soft, tearful eyes. 11. A beautiful girl watched the shadows and heard the honey-bees* hum. 12. The robin*s song reached the sick man*s darkened room. 13. June's lovely days bring buds and flowers. 14. The brook's clear surface reflected the moon's silver rays 15. The teach ')r*s explanation made the example clear. 16. The forest*s shade conceals many a beautiful flower. 17. Were John*s clothes well made? 18. The bees* sharp stings penetrated the boy's flesh. 19. The boy*s flesh was pierced. 20. The graceful maple tree has shed its beautiful scarlet ves. 21. The audience admired the lawyer's speech. 22. The trees* leaves absorb the atmosphere's poisons. INFLECTION OF NOUNS. 87 Exercise 85. — Pcurae the nouns in the followmg sentences, in accordance with the model. Tell also which words are transitive verbs, and which inn transitive verbs. I. John tore Kate's books. Model.— t/6An is a nouUf because it is the neune of a person ; proper ^ because it is the name of k particular x>erson ; singular number, because it denotes but one person; nuuf- culine gender, because it denotes a male ; nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb tore. Kat^s is a noun (give the reasons); proper $ singular number $ feminine gender; possessive case, because it denotes ownership. Sooks is a noun; common, because it is a class name; plural number, because it denotes more than one; neuter gender, because it denotes something without sex ; objective case, because it is the object of the transitive verb tore. Tor0 is a verb ; active; transitive^ (Give reasons.) 2. The hunter shot George's pet rabbit. 3. Did Mary break her sister's doll? 4. Are the moon's rays warm? 5. Always obey your teacher's requests. 6. The wisest men sometimes make mistakes. 7. The ripest apples have the richest colors. 8. Has James done a good day's work? 9. My friend's horse was killed. 10. Alfred's story alarmed his mother. II. Has Henry finished his Latin exercise? 12. The eagle can carry a lamb. 13. The girl's brother always solves her most diflftcult ex- amples. 14. The king was counting his money, and the queen was eating bread and honey. 15. The pupils' work was carefully and quickly examined. 16. Every school-boy should read Dickens's "David Copper- field." 17. The clouds' shadows traverse the mountain's sides. 38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LESSON XVI. ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. The pupil has seen that nouns may be modified by other words. These modifiers may be, 1. Words that denote some quality. Cfood chUd/r&n. JPretty pictwrea. Clear tucUer. 2. Words that point out. The horse. This hook. Those men. 8. Words that point out^ and at the same time denote ownership. Her bird. His slate. Mary's hat. Birds' nests. Nouns in the possessive case, hke Mary's and birds' above, are just as much modifiers as quality words are. Exercise 36. — Analyze the following sentences hy means of diagrams, as in the model, and explain the analysis : 1. A spider's treacherous web hopelessly entangled the foolish fly. . Subject. Predicate. I 1 I 1 S. S. web P. V. entansled O. N. fly A Ihopelessly ^e spider's jfoollah treacherouB 2. I frequently visit foreign cities. 3. Julia's happy bird gayly warbled a sweet song. 4. The watchman's rattle startled the drowsy people. ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 89 5. 6. 7. .8. 9. crumbs. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 18. room. The cfiureless maid lost the lady's jewels. A cruel boy robbed the wren's little nest. Brisk showers suddenly checked the children's sport. The gentle cows meekly crop the sweet young clover. The hen's cunning little chickens greedily ate the cook's George's cousin lately bought a fine new gun. We eagerly watched the busy sailors. That bold fisherman told many startling tales. A baby^s prattle generally amuses older people. The farmer's men are picking luscious purple grapes. The Sim's hot beams soon withered the poor thirsty plant. The flowers' fragrance completely filled the invalid's Exercise 87. — Supply modifiers of the nouns and verbs given below so that each sentence will exactly fill the model diagram. Model Diagram. Subject. S. N. .Modifiers. Predicate. P. T. Hodlfleis. O. N. Modifiers. Sultfect Jfoun. Predicate Verb, a^eet JVoun. 1. cat caught mice 2. boy solved examples 3. leaves adorn tree 4. farmer has gathered apples 5. Alice was chasing butterfly 6. fox kiUed chickens 7. children are picking flowers 8. manners make impression 9. labor accomplishes results 10. sailors rowed boat 11. baker makes bread 40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. auH^eaNmm. O^ieamm. 12. maid swept room 13. jeweler repaired bracelet 14. ocean floats ships 15. lightning shattered tree 16. teacher punishes pupils LESSON XVII. THE PRONOUN. When a child first learns to talk, in speaking about itself it nses its own name. Thus, when Louis is sleepy he will say, ^^Lowis is sleepy. ^^ Little Katy, when hungry, will say, ^^Katy waMs Katy^s dvanerr In speaking about strangers, the child uses such words as man^ womcm^ lady. Thus, ^^The mom gave Louis a penny. ^^ ^^The lady brought Katy a pretty fiower." But the child soon learns a better way of speak- ing. He finds out how to use certain little words called pronouns. By means of these words, he is able to talk about himself without mentioning his own name ; and he can talk to other persons or things, or about them, even when he does not know their namea Some pronouns denote the speaker, as /, we, me, us; some denote the person or thing spoken to, as you, your; and some denote the person or thing spoken about, as Tie, she, it^ them, his, her. Definition. — ^A pronoun is a word that denotes persons or things without naming them. TEE PRONOUN. . 41 The antecedent of a pronoun is the name of the person or thing denoted by the pronoun. Antecedent means "going before," and the word is used because the name of the person or thing de- noted by a pronoun generally occurs in the sentence before the pronoun. The hahy lost its rcUOe, Exercise 38. — Improve the following sentences by using pronouns instead of certain other words : 1. Frank learned Frank's lesson before Frank went to school. 2. The kitten ate the kitten's breakfast. 3. Eobert and George took Bobert's and George's skates and went to the lake. 4. The girls ate the girls' lunch under a large tree. 5. Jennie and Bertie are happy because Jennie and Bertie are good. 6. The little dog ate the little dog's meat and drank the little dog's milk. 7. The children were frightened at the elephant because the elephant was so large. 8. My brother was cutting wood, and my brother cut my brother's foot. 9. Mary said that Mary had finished Mary's work, but Mary was mistaken. 10. John's father told John that John must learn John's lesson before John went to school. 11. Walter said, **Give Walter Walter's dinner." Exercise 89. — Mention the pronouns , and the a/rvtecedent of each, 1. Frank's kite flew so high that he could scarcely see it. 2. "Children," said Aunt Sue, "you must be quiet at your play, or I shall send you to bed." 42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. King Midas valued his royal crown because it was made of gold. 4. The sun was shining on the sea. Shining with all his might ; He did his very best to make The billows smooth and bright. 5. The wind blew with all his strength a cold blast ; but the fiercer he blew, the tighter did the man clasp his cloak around him. 6. " What a selfish dog you are 1 " said the ox ; " you can not eat the hay yourself, nor will you let me eat it." 7. The herald bade Cinderella sit down on a stool in the kitchen, and himself put the slipi)er on her pretty little foot, which it fitted exactly. 8. " Oho I " said the pot to the kettle ; " You are dirty and ugly and black I Sure no one would think you were metal. Except when you're given a crack." " Not so I not so I " kettle said to the pot ; ** 'Tis your own dirty image you see ; For I am so clean — without blemish or blot- That yoin: blackness is mirrored in me." LESSON XVIII. THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. Most of the pronouns mentioned in the preceding lesson are used to denote persons^ or something sup- posed to speak, or to understand speech, as per- sons do. Those denoting the speaker, as /, me, we, us, etc., always denote persons, or something represented as speaking. I was sick. Mary sa/w tis. THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 43 Those denoting the listener, as thou, thee, yoUy etc., denote persons, or something spoken to as if it were a person. Th4nji art the mem. Did you go f But those denoting the person or thing spoken about, as he, him, she, it, they, etc., sometimes refer to persons and sometimes not. Birds a/re happiest when they are free. When the swn rose, he darted his fierce hea/ms on the flowers, a/nd they withered. Hence, since most of these words denote persons, they are all called personal pronouns. Definition. — ^A nonn or a pronoun is of the first person when it denotes the speaker. Definition. — ^A noun or a pronoun is of the second person when it denotes the person or thing spoken to. Definition. — ^A noun or a pronoun is of the third person when it denotes the person or thing spoken about. Exercise 40. — Tell which pronouns denote persons and which do not; mention also the antecedent of each. 1. The maid washed her dishes and put them in the closet. 2. Little Louis said he thought his top would get dizzy be- cause it turned round so fast. 3. The friendly cow all red and white, I love with all my heart ; She gives me cream with all her might ; I eat it with my tart. i4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. To-day my doll is one ye€u: old, And she shall have a purse of gold If she will speak and tell me where Tm> sure to find a gift so rare. 6. Tell me, pretty roses, for I want to know. Where it is you come from, how it is you grow. 6. The bride kissed the goblet ; the knight took it up. He quaffed off the wine, and he threw down the cup. 7. The wind is rushing through my hair: There must be needles in the air, — They prick me so I But I don't care. 8. My raft was now strong enough, and my next care was what to load it with and how to preserve what I laid upon it, from the surf of the sea. 9. I have a little shadow that goes in and out with me. And what can be the use of Mm, is more than I can see. He is very, very like me from his heels up to his head. And I see him, jump before me when I jump into bed. 10. "This is not a cold spoon, mother," said Tie; **it \a hot; it has almost burned iny fingers." 11. "Tell my mother that Tier other son shall comfort Tier old age; For I was still a truant bird that thought his home a cage." Exercise 41. — Write sentences containing : 1. him,. Tie, Tds, referring to an animal. 2. tTieir, tTiem, J, referring to persons. 3. it, she. Tier, referring to a doll. 4. tTiey, them, referring to plants. 5. sTie, Tier, Tie, TUs, tTiei/r, referring to children. 6. he, his, tTiem, referring to boys. 7. we, us, our, referring to persons. 8. sTie, Tier, referring to the moon. 0. m,y, mine, I, referring to a person. 10. us, tTiem, u>e, tTieirs, referring to girls. TEE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 45 LESSON XIX. THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. Personal pronouns, like nouns, have separate forms to show whether they denote one person or thing, or more than one. In other words, pronouns have number. Thus, in the following sentences, it is shown by the form of the pronouns that only one person is denoted by each pronoun : I run. He saw her. She taught him. Thau seest me. Again, the following pronouns by their form, de- note the plural number: We helped you. They escaped us. By their fruits ye sh^aZl know them,. The pronouns you, your, yours are used in both numbers. The hat you said was your hat was not yours. In this sentence, it is easy to see that the pro- nouns denote the singular. But in the following sentence they denote the plural number : You should all go directly to your homes. Exercise 42. — Fill the blanks with suitable pro- nouns, and tell which number is denoted by each: 1. Children are lovable when are good. 2. When Mary was old enough, mother sent to school. b. They have torn clothes. 46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. \ I 4. We carried lunch in baskets. 5. Each little bird within nest, Thinks parents love best. ; 6. Come with me, and will show where a robin has nest. 7. " am glad have come," said Fred to Frank, " and hope may play together as did yesterday." 8. Gustave came across the sea to this country with wife, daughters, and little son. 9. "It's well ran into the garden," Said Eddie, face all aglow ; "For what do think. Mamma, happened? never will guess it, know." 10. The man took off hat and coat and laid on a chair. • 11. "Oh, dear Papa," the children cried, " promised to take with on next ride." Exercise 43. — Tell the person of each personal pronoun in the following selections : 1. I stood on the bridge as you sailed under it, 2. Let us tread lightly and take own places without saying a word. 3. O, what are you doing, my baby, O, what are you doing, I pray ? 4. When my ship comes in from over the sea. Such wonderful things it will bring to we/ 5. They climb up into my turret, O'er the arms and back of my chair; If J try to escape, they surround me; They seem to be everywhere.— iowgr/eZZoio. 6. lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime. — Longfellow, 7. Whatsoe'er you find to do, Do it, boys, with all yowr might. 8. Which is yowr lot, my girl and boy? ' Is it a life of ease and joy? THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 47 9. Little Rosy Bed-cheek said unto a clover: "Flower, why were you made? I was made for mother, She hasn't any other ; But you were made for no one, Tm afraid." IOl The storm I The storm I I heax U coming ! Bun, or you will be lostl Exercise 44. — Write sentences containing: 1. Two or more pronouns in first person singular. 2. Two or more pronouns in third person pluraL 3. Two or more pronouns in first person pluraL 4. Two or more pronouns in third person singular. 5. Two pronouns in first person singular and two in third X)erson plural. 6. Two or more pronouns in second person plural. 7. One or more pronouns in first person plural and two or more in second person plural. 8. Three or more pronouns in second x>er8on plural. 9. Two or more pronouns in second person plural and one or more in third person singular. 10. Three or more pronoims in first person singular. LESSON XX. THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. The words w?io, which, and what are used to ask questions. Who kiUed the birdf Which wUl you haA)e f What did he say f In the foregoing sentences who, which, and what denote the person or thing inquired about, just as personal pronouns denote persons or things. When 48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. they are so used they are called interrogative pro^ nouns. The cmtecedent of an interrogative pronoun is found in the answer to the question in which the interrogative is used. Wh4> solved the excmiplef Janies. Which is the hoy f Arnold. What did fie buy f Sugar. Which and what^ when used as interrogative pro- nouns, do not change their forms ; but who has whose in the possessive case^ and whom in the objective case. Whose did he take f Joseph*s. Whom did you see f Alice, In the examples given above, who^ which^ and ouhat denote the person or thing inquired about. Whose^ which, and what, however, are often used in questions to modify the word denoting the person or thing inquired about. Wliose book is this f Which word did he miss f What ivrong has he done f In these examples whose, which, and wh^ut are not interrogative pronouns. For the present the pupil may call them m^odifiers. Exercise 46. — In the following sentences, point out whose, which, a/ad what when used as interrogor' tive pronouns, and when used as modifiers : 1. Whose bird was lost? 2. What did the boy find? 3. Which coat was taken, and whose was it? THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 49 4. Which won the prize; the boy or the girl? &. Which vase did the child break, and what was done about it? 6. Which shall we send; the flowers or the fruit? 7. At which hotel did you stop, and what did you pay? 8. What did you buy, and at what price? 9. For what purpose do you come, and at whose invitation? 10. Which is the man whose dog was lost? 11. Which do you like better; Maggie or Amy? 12. What can I do to oblige you? Exercise 46. — In accordance with the models put the following sentences in diagrams^ and explain the analysis : 1. Who will recite his grammar lesson well to-morrow? Model. Subject. ^ Predicate. S. Pr. Wbo P. T. will recite O.N. lesson me] |to-i eU -moiraw his 2. Whom did the fierce dog attack yesterday? Model. Subject. Pre dicate. ^ . — -, I I S. N. doe p. V. did attack O. Pr. Whom _ I the I yesterday fierce • 3. Which performed the difficult task best? 4. Who cruelly robbed the bird's nest? 5. Who would believe that foolish tale? 6. What reward does the gentleman offer? 7. Which pupil solved the most intricate problems? 8. What will he probably do next? 50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 9. Which lessons do you like most? 10. Who has read this charming book? 11. What navigator first circumnavigated the earth? 12. Who faithfully delivered her mother's message? LESSON XXI. THE CONJUNCTION. There is a very important class of words called conjvmjCtions. The principal use of these words is to connect sentences, and to bring them into some kind of relation to each other. Ba Ues on the sofa because he is tired. The dock is slow, or I am mistaken. He is not here now but I expect Jwm. Cdlvmbus believed tluU the earth is round. By the use of conjunctions two or more unrelated sentences may be united and brought into relation. They may often be very much shortened by being thus united into one sentence. John goes to school ) ^ j.^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^ Henry goes to school) Sentences may be united in various relations. iHe understood the exam%ple. (He solved the example. He wnderstood and solved the exa/mple. He tmderstood the example after he solved it. He wnderstood the exa/mple because Tie solved it. He tmderstood the example if he solved it. Conjunctions are used also to connect words. THE CONJUNCTION. 51 They a/re hvsbcmd and wife. My dress was made of sUk ami velvet. Conjunctions are sometimes used in pairs, and are then called correlative conjunctions. He was both a gentlema/n and a schda/r. If he is a man of his word, theti he wiU come. J%ough he slay me, yet will I trust in hwn. You mttst either recite yov/r lesson or lose you/r marks. Definition. — ^A conjunction is a word used to con- nect words or sentences. Exercise 47. — Fill the blanks with suitable con- jwnctions. 1. He should have done the work he promised to do it. 2. Do not stay away from school you are sick. 3. He is a good boy he is a poor scholar. 4. He waited for me I finished my breakfast. 5. I shall never again believe you you deceive me. 6. butter eggs could be found in the market. 7. he is guilty he is much abused. 8. I have not learned he was there not. fi. He found my watch returned it, he is honest. 10. Tou should try again you failed in your first attempt. 11. The poor man struggled for his life his strength was exhausted. 12. The bee lays up honey it may have food in winter. 13. You must be attentive you wiU forget. 14. Balph is industrious bright. 15. I have eaten slept for two days. 16. We danced they played. 17. The journey was made slowly surely. 18. Make hay the sun shines. 19. In the garden, red white roses grow. 52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Exercise 48. — Unite the following pairs of sen- tences by conjunctions selected from the list below : and else however in order that that since but or nevertheless so that except neither for yet notwithstanding therefore until nor also still as soon as then while after besides \ only as long as hence as either becaus e unless without although than if 1. He abused his little brother. He is cruel. 2. He deceived n^e once. I will trust him again. 3. The doctor can not cure the poor woman. He may pro- long her life. 4. Croesus was very wealthy. He was not happy. 5. The train left the station. The passengers were all aboard. 6. You can not expect to succeed. You spend your time in idleness. 7. The snail won the race. He traveled very slowly. 8. The prize may be hard to gain. We shall make the effort to win it. 9. The earth is known to be a sphere. Men have sailed around it. 10. He was not a gentleman. He had the* appearance of being a gentleman. 11. I locked the stable carefully. The horse was stolen. 12. I wore a heavy oyercoat. I might be comfortable dur- ing the long ride. 13. He failed at the first attempt. He tried again. 14. I have never visited my old home. My father died in it. 15. Be careful to do your work. Your teacher may praise it. 16. The storm destroyed every tree in the orchard. The trees in the forest all escaped. 17. The boy gave his seat to the lady. He was regarded as a gentleman. 18. I expect to fail in the attempt. I am going to try. 19. Duty is often unpleasant. We should not neglect it. 20. Socrates was thought to be very wise. He overcame the wisest in argument. SUBJECTS, PREDICATES, AND OBJECTS. 58 LESSON XXII. COMPOUND SUBJECTS, PREDICATES, AND OBJECTS. By means of conjunctions, two or more sentences may be united so that, 1. The subjects Tao^y be compound. iPavl can read, ( Sam^ttel can read, Pa/ul and Samuel can read, 2. The predicate may be compound, iKUtie did not study Tier lesson, {Kittie did not recite her lesson. Kittie neither studied nor recited her lesson, 8. The object may be compound. (Nellie gathered flowers every morrdng. NeUie gathered berries every morning, Nellie gathered either flowers or berries every momvng, 4. Any two, or ail three of these parts may be compound. Paul and Sa/muel can not only read but also write, Frank studded and recited both his geography and history, Ellen or Bessie lost the books and pictures. A fox or an owl caught and killed our geese and chickens. Exercise 4:9,— As in the model, put the following sentences into diagrams: 1. Tender buds and fragrant flowers beautify the lovely woods and the pleasant meadows. 54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Model. Subject. Predic ate. I I I ' = S. N. bads O. X. wo«>d8 Tender ix >/• \the S. N. flowers i/ \io. JT. meadows ifrasrrant the pleasant 2. The careless boy lost his coat and his cap. 3. The sun, the moon, £tiid the stars light the earth. 4. My mother cooks and sweeps and sews. 5. The blacksmith heated and hammered the iron. 6. Harry threw and caught his rubber ball. 7. Shall you and' I go? 8. Will the sick man live or die? 9. The clever boys* built and sailed a pretty boat. 10. Cinderella embraced and forgave her cruel sisters. 11. The horse or the cow must be sold. 12. Mary's father bought a house and lot. 13. The merry boys gathered nuts and apples. 14. The wind and the rain delayed our journey. 15. The circus astonished and delighted the children. 16. The pet lamb suddenly sickened and soon died. 17. The noble hound loved and faithfully served his master. 18. He or she broke the beautiful vase and the valuable mirror. 19. Do Jennie and Amy study diligently? 20. Will he visit your cousin or your friend? Sentences may be united by conjunctions so that modifiers are compound. iFred skates rapidly, (Fred skates gracefvMy. Fred skates rapidly and gracefvMy, {His clothes were poor. His clothes were cleoji. His clothes were neat. His dothes were poor, but clean and neat. TEE ADJECTIVE. 55 Exercise 50. — Put the folUywmg sentences into diagrams : 1. A small but thoughtful child tenderly watched her sick and helpless brother. Model. Subject. ^ Predloate. S. y. cMld p. y. watched O. N. brother I tenderly her 8lpk but and thoufrhtful llielpleas 2. The tired and hungry children gladly ate their supper. 3. The queen's attendants wear beautiful and costly dresses. 4. The sailors gayly and cheerfully plied their oars. 5. The band played a slow and solemn march. 6. Come quickly and quietly. 7. The sly fox quickly caught the foolish and unsuspecting goose. 8. little Marygold slowly and disconsolately opened the door. 9. A famous king built a vast and grand temple. 10. Busily and noisily, the mill grinds the wheat. 11. The bold and merry urchin astonished his teacher. 12. The soldiers gladly and proudly marched away. 13. The mother's low and gentle voice soothed the fretful child. 14. Did the man si)eak poorly, or well? 15. The brook flowed not quietly, but noisily. 16. Wafl the work done cheerfully or imwillingly? LESSON XXIII. THE ADJECTIVE. When we use a noun, as apple, we may mean any apple whatever. But we generally wish to talk about 56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. a particular kind of apple, as red apples^ sweet op- plea; or about a number or quantity of apples, as two apples^ many apples i or about some particular apple, as the apple, ih/is apple^ the fourth apple. By using with a noun a modifier, as red, sweet, ma/ny, etc., we limit or confine the application of the noun so that it includes only the thing or things we mean, and not the whole class of things denoted by the noun. Words used in this manner are called adjectives. The adjective the is called the definite article, and the adjective a or cm is called the indefinite article. Definition. — An adjective is a word used to aid in denoting more exactly what is named by a noun. Nearly all adjectives are used to denote qualitiea Thus, when we say a true story, the adjective true denotes that the quality truthfulness belongs to story. In Uke manner, the adjective steep in a steep hill de- notes that steepness belongs to hill. The name of the quality itself is a noun. Adjectives used in this way are called descriptive adjectives. Exercise 51. — What qVfdlities are denoted by the following adjectives f Long, ugly, sour, sharp, kind, late, afraid, old, idle, polite, modest, sweet, sad, black, brief, sorry, rapid, brave, poor, sin- cere, silent, ill, happy, glad, smooth, dark, speedy, swift, wise, timid, i)erfect, frequent, patient. Exercise 62. — Leave out the descriptive adjectives Q/nd read what remains: THE ADJECTIVE. 57 1. The little boy had a long, thick stick in his left hand. 2. A fierce dog bit the young child on its bare arm. 8. The truant boys were caught in a terrible storm. 4. Large fields of golden gprain waved in the morning breeze 5. Skillful workmen were engaged in making pretty toys. 6. Parties of gay, happy children were enjoying the pure, fresh air. 7. In the beautiful month of June fragrant flowers bloom everywhere. 8. Careful parents should cuivise their children to read g^ood books. 9. A kind lady brought a lovely lily to the sick girl. 10. The foolish child cut her golden curls with the sharp scissors. 11. A loud cry from the suffering boy broke the long silence. 12. Our books should be printed from clear, large type on good paper. 13. The weary travelers found on the sandy shore some fine, fat oysters. 14. "What is the use of tails?" said the fox; "they are ugly, draggling, unnecessary appendages." 15. The dying man cried for cool water to moisten his parched throat. 16. The prosperous farmer stood on his green lawn and gazed on his brocui meadows and level fields. Many adjectives describe by denoting the material of which things are made. Thus, we say, An iron Jioqp, A gold ringy A wooden bowl Exercise 58. — Mil the blanks with descriptwe adjectives denoting material: 1. The lady purchased a handkerchief and a ha*^ 2. — — gloves are not so warm as mittens. 8. A house is cool in sumkner and warm in winter. 4. The baby played with a ring and a rattle. 6. His aunt bought him a spoon and a mug. 58 . ENQLISM GRAMMAR. 6. The C!iristmas-tree was lighted with candles. 7. He bought a shade for his lamp. 8. The i)aj:k was inclosed by a wall, on the top of which was a railing. In writing a iecuer she used a pen-holder £uid a pen. 10. He opened the door with a key and went softly up the stairs. 11. boots worn over shoes will keep the feet dry. 12. He dropi)ed the dish on the pavement. 13. A pipe carried the water from a washbowl. 14. Books with bindings last longer than with bindings. 15. The boy lost a beautiful knife with a handle and — blades. LESSON XXIV. THE ADJ ECTI VE. We have seen that by using an adjective with a noun we are able to separate what we wish to talk about from all the rest of the class. When we use the descriptive adjective we limit the meaning of the noun by denoting a quality found not in the whole class, but in a part of it. But there are adjectives that limit the applicar tion of a noun by denoting fiow many or Tiow much of the class. Thus, when we say some snow, few birds, no books, seven brothers, the words soms, few, no, seven denote the quantity we wish to talk about Adjectives so used are called adjectives of qua/rin tity. THE ADJECTIVE. 59 Exercise 54. — Underscore the adjectives of qucunr- tity, and doubly wnderscore the descriptive adjectives. /^. Some food was given to the hungry beggar. 2. Most rivers find their way to the sea. 3. Every cloud has a silver lining. 4. After much persuasion the two children were induced to go home. 5. There were few boys in the school, but many girls. 6. Not many men will work all day for one dollar. •-7. John ate a whole pie for his dinner. 8. Much clothing and abundant food were sent to the di»- tressed families. 9. Great wisdom is better than great riches. 10. A little money can often be made to do much good. >^11. The mining of coal is an immense industry. >^12. A poor workman is entitled to small pay. 13. Any boy in good health should be able to walk several miles every day. 14. The searchers followed many clues, but could find no trace of the lost child. 15. The farmer's extensive grounds cost many, many dollars. *^16. The surface of the entire pond was dotted With fra- grant lilies. Adjectives sometimes follow the nouns they modify; as, The boy, worn and tveary, slept by the roadside. Exercise 65. — Mil the blanks with adjectives. 1. The horse galloped along the road. 2. flowers are found in the meadow. 3. The dog, and , crept into his kennel. 4. On a day in May, the invalid was taken out in the air. 6. The mother, ^— and , soothed her babe to rest. 6. We camped out in a grove near a lake. 7. The girls held a picnic in the woods. 60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 3. The -^ boy will be successful in life, but the one will fail. 9. The snow fell silently all night. • 10. The soldier faintly begged for water 11. Once upon a midnight , While I pondered and weary LESSON XXV. TH E ADJECTIVE. Adjectives have been divided by grammarians into a great many classes, but all adjectives are used for the sa*me purpose. They all help to separate the thing we wish to talk about from other things having the same name. Among these classes are : 1. Descriptive adjectives, or such as denote qual- ity ; as, fresh air, blue sky. 2. Adjectives that point out in nearly the same way that we point things out with the finger; as, this book, yonder cloud, that man. 8. Numeral adjectives, or such as denote exact number; as, two apples, the tenth hoy, the third desk. 4. Indefinite nv/meral adjectives, or such as de- note number, but not exact number; as, inany w^n^ severed 'books, some pears, few persons. 5. Adjectives derived from proper nouns ; as Frenchf Spanish, American. These are called proper adjectives, and they begin with capital letters. 6. Adjectives derived from veros called verbal adjectives; as, rfmning water, wlnnlnf; smiles. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 61 Exercise 56. — Copy the following selections, point out the adjectives, and tell what word each modifies. In the heart of the busy city. In the scorching noon-tide heat, A sound of bubbling water Is heard in the din of the street. It falls in a gray stone basin. And over the cool wet brink The heads of thirsty horses ££ich moment are stretched to drink. A plump little girl and a thin little bird Were out in the meadow together. **How cold that poor little bird must be Without any nice warm clothes," said she, "Although it is sunshiny weather." "A nice little girl is that," said he, ** But oh, how cold she must be I For, see, She hasn't a single feather I" — So each shivered to think of the other poor thing, Although it was sunshiny weather. — From St, NicholoA LESSON XXVI. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Before we are prepared to join a descriptive ad- jective ^o a noun, as large to house, the thing we mean must be compared with all the rest of the class, so far as we know the class. We have a notion of the usual size of houses, and after compar- ing the house we are considering, with that notion, 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. we say it is a large house. Others may have much more of the quality largeness, but this one has enough of it to be classed among large hovses. An adjective that thus implies the comparison of one thing or group of things with all the rest of that class is said to be of the positive degree. Again, we may wish to compare with each other two things, or two groups of things, that have dif- ferent amounts of the same quality. This apple is sweeter than that apple. Bats a/re larger than mice. In these sentences, the adjectives sweeter and larger are said to be of the comparative degree. A comparison of three or wxyre things, or groups of things, may show that one of the things or one of the groups excels all the rest in some quality. He is the taUest poUc&mam, m the city. lAUes a/re the most beatUiful of flowers. The adjectives tallest and m^st beautiful are said to be of the superlative degree. There are, therefore, three degrees of comparison, the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. Nearly all the adjectives that can be compared are descriptive. •■» Definition. — The positive degree of an adjective is the form of it that implies the comparison of one thing or group of things with all the rest of the class. A taU tree. A good man. A fast trqnau COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 68 Definition. — ^The comparative degree of an ad- jective is the form of it that is used to denote that one thing or class of things has more or less of a certain quality than another thing or cla-ss of things. John is stranger than Ja/mea, Orcmges a/re ie88 aour them apples. Definition. — The superlative degree of an ad- jective is the form of it that is used to denote that one of three or more things or classes of things has the highest or the lowest degree of a certain quality. JupU&r is the largest of the pla/nets, Dia/monds a/re the least perishable of precious stones, "RuLK — Adjectives of one syllable usually add r or er to the positive to form the comparative, and St or est to form the superlative. AiWw. OomparaUve, SuperlaUve, tmwe hra/oer bran)est bright brighter brightest Rule. — When adjectwes consist of two or m^ore syllables, different degrees, of the quality they denote are usually indicated by prefixing more and most, or less and least, to the ^mple form of the adjective. sHent more silent most silent noisy less noisy least noisy Exercise 57. — Write sentences containing the foV lowing adjectives in the comparative degree: black coarse grand rough clear long sweet weak smooth near fine rich deep bright dear sad poor high light short 64 ENGLISH ORAMMAU. Exercise 58. — Gompa/re^with the aid of more arid most, and less and least, the followmg adjectives: studious careful beautiful cuniiiiig particular sensible fanciful forgetful negligent persevering . diligent emphatic ladylike comfortable unfortunate obedient LESSON XXVII, . COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Many adjectives of two syllables are compared, 1. By change of termination; as pretty, prettier^ prettiest. Rule. — Adjectives of two syllables ending in y are compared by cha/aging y into i and adding er to form the com/parati/ve and est to form the superlative. silly, sillier, siUiest, happy. Trappier, happiest. 2. By change of termination; or by prefixing -more and m^st, or less and least; as stvpid, stvpider^ . , , , . , more ) ^ . _ most ) ^ . , stupidest; or stupid, ystvpid^ > stupid. There is, however, no general rule for comparing such adjectives. The ear is the best guide. Exercise 59. — Ih*om their sovmd, determine the comparison of the followi/ng adjectives : lovely simple narrow sorry nimble holy crazy stoUd severe pleasant useful poUte COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES, 65 dirty angry gentle infirm able afraid frightful idle ugly mellow remote subtle serene soUd unkind ample foolish tender easy yellow joUy cruel hollow deadly Certain adjectives are irregular in their compari- son. The most important of these are given below, and should be committed to memory. P09Uive. OompQTOiUw, good better best bad, ill, or evil worse worst Uttle less least much, or many more most late later, or latter latest, or last far farther, or further farthest, or furthest near nearer nearest, or next old older, or elder oldest, or eldest Exercise 60. — Fill the blanks with suitable adjeo- tiveSy give the comparison, and tell the degree of each : 3. gems. 1. My doll is , but Mary's is . 2. Gold is the of metals, but iron is the The diamond is the as well as the — of 4. Bessie is than Katy, but not so nor so , 5. I never saw a face or a smile. 6* The flowers of May are than those of any other month. 7. It is from New York to Chicago than it is to Boston. 8. To be is than to be . 9. He is now the man in the city, but he was once than I am. 10. Empty vessels always make the noise. 11. By united effort the task becomes to accomplish. 66 EKOLISH GRAMMAR. 12. The country life is too to satisfy people. 13. The flowers usually hide away in the forests. 14. The sunlight melted the snow-drifts, and waked from their — — sleep myriads of buds. 15. Napoleon gained victories and met defeats than general of times. 16. The moonlight, and , flooded every thing with its rays. LESSON XXVIII. THE PREPOSITION. When the meaning of one word is affected in any way by another word, the words ai:e said to he related to each other. Thus, an adjective or an adverb is related to the word it modifies ; the subject or ob- ject of a verb is related to the verb, etc. Words that have no relation to each other may often be brought into relation by putting another word between them. ra/n, school, my Thome tJie sea. sat — weary the house. labor. By filling the blanks above with such words as to, m, from, at, by, toward, etc., the unrelated words are connected and brought into relation. to from into at toward ► school. sat hy in upon under . against > the house. THE PREPOSITION. 6T fny home J near I the sea, weary J from I labor. [an J [with J Words used like to, frorrij etc., are called prepoair tions. The noun or pronoun that follows the prepo- sition, as school, sea, etc., is called the object of the preposition. Like the object of a transitive verb, it is in the dbjecti/ve case. toUh me, for him, agadnst them* A preposition is a word used to connect a noun or a pronoun with some other word, and to denote a relation between them. Exercise 61. — Fill the blanks with suitable prepo^ sitions: 1. Fishes live — — the water. 2. The house stood a hill. 3. A boy a drum stood near me. 4. Wolves prowl about night. 5. The baby died fever. 6. The best boy the class received the prize. 7. The camel is called the ship the desert. 8. The conductor the train rang the bell. / 9. We walked the beach the evening. 10. The only son the widow went the war. 11. Tears joy ran her pale cheeks. 12. Jessie ran the steps and the house. 13. The child received a box candy her aunt. 14. A traveler far lands came our house the city. 15. little Johnny was dressed his suit navy blue. 16. We passed a garden rare plants. 17. Come me the tree the old orchard. 18. Many children this country have heard the great clock Strassburg Cathedral. 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Exercise 62.— From the following list of preposi* tiona select such as will properly fill the "blanks : without of past below behind down from opposite above concerning along through into aboard cunong during beside at under across around except against for toward near beneath over beyond to about before on until between up !• A boy a hat ran the street a wagon. 2. A swarm bees the house gathered honey the flowers the spring and sunmier. 8. "We went the traiu Philadelphia, and arrived that city two hours time. 4. The snow the street our house lay drifts — — the middle April. 5. The note the teacher contained a complaint the lessons all my children my oldest son. 6. "We went the ship and sailed the bay and the ocean. 7. A pleasant path lies the grove the meadows. 8. A missionary who had lived Indians talked us — their habits. 9. They wcdked the river bank and talked many things. 10. As the travelers drew the city, many beggars swarmed them, asking alms. 11. the dinner, an impolite boy left the table per- mission. 12. The picnic was held a grove pines, the lake. 13. "We rowed our boat the stream, the tide. 14. Jumping the train, he was quickly carried the city. 15. The ancient prophets looked the present the future. 16. Strong evidence was given court the prisoner. 17. -^sop wrote a fable a fox and some grapes. 18. We waited sunset starting on our journey. ADJECTIVE PHRASE MODIFIERS. 69 19. The boat drifted the falls, and struck the rooks the rapids. 20. A fine painting hung the wall the piano. 21. The horse ran the ring a monkey his back.' Exercise 68. — Fill the foUowmg hlanka with prep- ositions that will bring the words into relation: 21. slept his dinner. 22. was carried the train. 23. children blue eyes. 24. leaned the house. 25. flew the mountain. 26. looked the south. 27. sunk the horizon. 28. swam the river. 29. forest the bam. 30. played dinner. 31. dreamed his home. 32. people the sea. 33. a tunnel the mountain 34. climbed the fence. 35. sailed the bridge. 36. strolled the lane. 37. chased the room. 38. journey the world. 39. suflfered — • the winter. 40. a prisoner two polict 1. letter home. 2. house the lake. 3. tree the park. 4. a race the meadow. 5. ran his playmate. 6. walked her mother. 7. crushed the cars. 8. stooped my burden. 9, waited my arrival. 10. a man friends. 11. an animal fur. 12. a sermon brotherly love. 13. advice your conduct. 14. awoke sunrise. 15. hurried the forest. 16. scattered the room. 17. a basket his arm. 18. a rose the house. 19. a trip the ocean. 20. LESSON XXIX. ADJECTIVE PHRASE MODIFIERS. The preposition with its object and the words that modify the object, make up what is called the prepositional phrase. 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. When this phrase is used, like the adjective, to modify a noun or a pronoun, it is called an adjec- tive phrase. ' an the table with the caver The box \ from the store )-ia mme. €U!ro8s the roam . beyond the chair . Noun Modified) BY Ph&ase. ) Pbonoun Modified) BT Phrase. ) in the carriage under the umbreUa opposite the speaker near the door by the fountain is the general. The adjective phrase may often be shortened into an adjective, or into a noun or pronoun in the pos- sessive case. Acta of kindness Clouds of gold The Jumse of my father Word of cheer Umigra/nts from, Italy Kind acts. €Mden clouds. My father's house. Cheering words. I Italian emigrcmts. Exercise "Bd. — Fill the blanks with adjective phrase modifiers, and tell what words they modify : 1. An acre should produce twenty bushels — 2. The kettle began to sing cheerily. 3. A baby was eating a piece 4. I love to hear the patter . 5. The showers bring May flowers. 6. The bells began to ring. 7. A nest was found in the meadow. 8. The leader was killed in battle. 9. A child ran down the street. 10. Do not steal the eggs '• • TUJi! ADVKHB, Tl 11. The bird sang to his mate . 12. The captain punished a disobedient sailor 13. The love is a grievous fault. 14. The water turned the wheel -^ . Exercise 65. — As in the example given below, dicmge the italicized words into phrases : 1. Ghlden curls and hhte eyes served to render her a heauti- ftU creature. Curls of gold and eyes of hhte served to render her a creature of beatUy. 2. The dadly tasks are all ended. 3. Our cotmtry cousins paid us a Ticbsty visit. 4. Good^empered boys make pleasant playmates. 5. Singing and dancing were the evenmg^s amusement. 6. The lark sang its joyotLS and hUssftU songs. 7. The h6e*8 legs were covered with poUen grains. 8. Telknv-fever patients are not allowed to enter ITeu York harbor. 9. The pvblio-schodl teachers enjoyed their vacation trip. 10. During my momrng walk I bought some flower pots. 11. The hoys^ teacher received a gold-headed cane. 12. The city people spent their summer in a seorS'ide cottage. 13. The Newfowndland fogs hide many a northsm iceberg. 14. Artists* materials are sold at a Broadtuay store. 15. A knotty tree stood in the sheep pasture. 16. IHctva-e books entertain the children during many idle moments. LESSON XXX THE ADVERB. We learned in Lesson VTL that a verb may be modified so as to denote a particular time, or place, or manner, in which the action expressed by the verb is performed. 72 SNGLtSH GRAMMAR. May went yesterday. Oome here, my hoy. 0cm you speak diMnctly? Words used with verbs in this manner are called adverbs. Since the word adverb means to the verb, it might be supposed that adverbs are used to modify verbs only. Adjectives, however, are often modified, and the adverb is used for this purpose. JSe is an extremely had hoy. That is a very heauttfuZ flofver. Jdh/n is quite sick. In like manner, adverbs themselves may be modi- fled by other adverbs. It was done very gracefuUy. Do not move so slowly. Not there, hut exactly here the treasure was fovmd, A great many adverbs are formed from adjectives by the addition of ly. Rule. — Adjectives of two syllables^ endmg m y hut not in ly, are cTumged into adverbs by cJia/nging y into i a/nd adding ly. prettily, nanightily, oozUy, Definition. — ^An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. ExEBCisE 66.— Mention the adverbs, and tell which words they modify. 1. He fell heavily from a load of hay yesterday. 2. Slowly and painfully we climbed the mountaixL 8. Sooner or later we must J)ass away. 4. Whv did you leave the city so suddenly? THE ADVERB. 5. "Your work has been done neatly and carefully, the teacher very pleasantly. ^ 6. '*! placed the book here, not there," said John. 7. We started very early, €aid walked rapidly. 8. I never before saw a more beautiful sight. 0. " The hare ran much faster than I did," said the tortoise, "but I gained the race quite easily." 10. How many persons Went there, and where did they go afterward? • 11. Do not speeds quite so fast and you will be able to speckk much more distinctly. 12. We sometimes visit the city, but soon tire of its noises. I made the effort just once, but was not entirely suo- 13. cessful. 14. 15. You will. never see him again, I am quite sure. I went there twice lately, but shall probably not go again. 16. The ancients were entirely wrong in their belief that the earth is flat. Exercise 67. — Tell what ad/verb is derived from each of tJie following adjectives : slow keen mild quick sleepy sharp meek bad stupid sfiiooth simple glad sad ready polite happy kind pretty harsh angry close able spiteful rude loose rough light bright mean dreary firm dreadful frank steady real straight Exercise 68. — Make sentences in which the foV lowvag words shall be used as adverbs: now always somehow once soon greatly here probably thus seldom back- less so almost out often truly least rather least hence rarely well perhaps not otherwise yonder early enough afterw£urd certainly everywhere nowhere ever where 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LESSON XXXI. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. Most adverbs that admit of comparison have the adverbs more and most, less and least joined to them to denote degrees of comparison. rapidly keenly joyfuMy CkmiparaHve. more) ... less l"-^^^ most) ._, mere less mere less i keenly I Joyfully most least i keenly. Z'}^-^*^- Some words that are used as adjectives are also used as adverbs, the comparison being the same. Adjedive8, Adverbs, He owns a fust horse. His horse travels fast. I shall go on a faster tradn. Light moves faster tham, aownd. The longest road ends at last. He spoke longest. A few adverbs are compared irregularly. itosWw. SuperlaHw, much more most Uttie less least far farther farthest forth further furthest weU better best badly) m worse worst Many adverbs do not admit of comparison ; most of those that do are adverbs of manner. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 75 Exercise 69. — Pbmt out the adjectwea and the adverbs^ and tell what word ea^h modifies: 1. There was onoe a serious little boy, Who never smiled and who rarely spoke ; Arithmetic was his only joy, And he could not be made to take a joke. 2. Stitch and stitch, my little maid. Dainty apron, comely gown; Neatly let each hem be laid. Firmly fold the edges down Finely fashion every fold. Deftly stitch the pocket in ; Weave the loop the hook to hold. Leave no place for envious pin. 8. Dame Redbreast, in her modest gown. Sits brooding there in sober brown. Beneath her patient, throbbing breast Four lovely eggs are warmly pressed. Was ever bird so highly blest As now am I? Exercise 70. — Analyze the following sentences by means of diagrams^ and parse the adjectives amd adverbs : 1. A beautiful girl quickly opened the door. Subject. Predicate. S. N. girl P. V. opened O. N. door I A Iquickly |the beautiful ' SeautiftU is an adjeetwe; it modifies the noim girl; it Is compared, positive beautiful, comparative more beautiful, superlative most beautiful; it is in the positi/oe degree. Quickly is an adverb; it modifies the verb opened; it is compared, positive quickly, comparative more qtiickly, super- Untive most quickly; it is in the positvoe degree. 76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. The poor old beggar gladly accepted the dinner. 3. The weary father gently kissed his sick child. 4. Kaphael painted some very wonderful pictures. 5. The summer breeze slowly swayed the baby's hammock 6. A terrific storm completely wrecked the frail vessel. 7. The lawyer lightly hummed an old love-tune. 8. 'A studious pupil carefully prepares every lesson. 9. ' Brave Paul Bevere boldly roused the slumbering patriots. 10. A welcome rain refreshed the thirsty flowers. 11. The httle Hiawatha learned the birds' secrets. 12. A tiny mouse greatly frightened three timid little girls. 13. "We boldly steered our boat through the fierce waters. 14. Dear, gentle, patient Nell loyally and hopefully attended her poor, foolish, old grandfather. LESSON XXXII. ADVERBIAL PHRASE MODIFIERS. A prepositional phrase used like an adverb to modify a verb or an adjective is called an adverbial phrase. along the street, against the waU. after the hoys, behind the house. . among the thorns. by nature. from experience. in battle. at Gettysburg. throughout tfie war. Verb Modified) _ ^ I- MB ran BT Phrase. ) Adjeotivb Modi-) __ ,_. , .,,^ >■ Ths aolMer was hra/ve fied by Phrase. ) A prepositional phrase is itself often modified by an adverb. ADVERBIAL PHRASE MODIFIERS. 77 Phbase Modified) .^^ . > We were almont BY Adyebb. ) f ai the swmmiL over the mov/ntadn, through the pass, opposite the city, L tmder the tree. Exercise 71. — In the following sentences^ tell which are adjective^ and which adverbial^ phrases. Tell also what each modifies. 1. A very fine hotel near the sea safely sheltered the visitors from the city. 2. Without hesitation, I gladly accepted my uncle's invita- tion to the party. 3. During the morning, we heard a snatch of a merry little song. 4. The ship of the admiral sailed away to the other side of the world. . 5. The jewels of the princess were much admired at the baU. 6. Katy*s bright eyes soon discovered, on a projecting limb, the nest of the robin. 7. Poor frightened Cinderella ran quickly away to her cheerless home. 8. The prince loved dearly the wearer of the little glass slipper. ^ 9. Our cabin in the forest has a chimney of stone. 10. During the storm, the force of the torrent uprooted the trees along the river's bank. 11. The shadow on the dial marks quite correctly the hour of the day. 12. The sun sends through my window his morning rays of lierh^' 0^\6 ^^at. •* r : •%. Qn the bright May mornings, groups of merry children were seen in the park. 14. The judge rode slowly down the lane. 15. She filled for him her small tin cup. 16. The students of the college often rowed on the lake. 6 T8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Exercise 72. — Analyze the following sentences hy mecms of diagrams, and explavn the analysis : 1. Fruits from the oi^hards of Calif omia may be bought in the markets of London. Subject. Predicate. r 8. N. Fmlta P. V. may be bonght I from orchards I in markets I the * I the I of Calif omlii | of London 2. In the spring, the snow of the mountain swej.ls the strecuns of the valley. 3. At the door, on summer evenings, sat the little Hiawatha. 4. Ants know the state of the weather very accurately. 5. Lonesome little Paul waited patiently for his sister. 6. The floor of the cave was covered with heaps of gold. 7. The fatal shot was fired before the dawn of day. 8. Bees in the clover are crooning drowsily. 9. The prince was superbly dressed in a robe of blue velvet* 10. The blue-jay in the maple tree sang gleefully to his mate. 11. In the spring a fuller crimson comes upon the robin's breast. 12. All day long through Frederick street, Sounded the tread of marching feet. 13. In their ragged regimentals, stood the old continentals 14. Then Anthony Blair, with a mortified air. With his head down on his breast. Took his penitent seat by the maiden sweet. 15. Gentle Tina held the bird lightly in one hand. 16. The bricklayers had left, by accident, a very small hole near the top of the granary. . 17. The children found a most wonderful tree, with leaves of silver. 18. For three years. Jack scarcely thought of the bean-stalk, 19. The fairy dwarf spun all the straw into shining gold. 20. Countless troops of wolves roam about in the dark forests of Bussia. EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 79 LESSON XXXIII. EXERCISES IN REVIEW. Exercise 78. — Analyze the following sentences^ and explain the analysis: X. Why did Henry and your cousin from the country leave the city so suddenly without any explanation? Subject, Predicate. S. y. Henry 8. K. oouein -I^N^__ P. V. did leave O. N. city ^ ^\^ fW^ li^ie ^ ^ ■J^^ KIlddATllv I your from country Ithe {any suddenly jso without explanation 2. Some flowers grow best in the deep shades of the forest and beautify the lonely places and hidden nooks. Subjects Predicate. * I ■ ■ I f 1 P. V. grow 8. ir. tloyivn y L IS" O. K. plucw. 5? < no€jgg_ [hidden 3. A great yellow cat sat on the sill of our kitchen window. 4. The terrified passengers dressed hastily and came on deck. 5. A tiny yellow warbler built a nest in a little bush in our front yard. • 6. The lovely mermaids once sat on the rocks by the ocean and braided their curious sea-green hair. 7. Tina fed with crumbs and warmed the starving sparrow. 8. Many great ships, during the last year, sailed away over the ocean to foreign lands. 80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 9. Visitors from many different countries attend the recep- tions at the White House. 10. Maud Muller stooped, and filled from the spring her small tin cup. 11. The dog, in a loving way, put his great paw into Annie's little hand. 12. My dear cousin and I played at the edge of the laJce. 13. Hiawatha heard the whispering of the pine-trees and the lapping of the water. 14. Hawthorne wrote many short but beautiful sketches for children. 15. The sun suddenly shone through the pane, and lighted the baby's sweet face. 16. The weather-cock on the steeple told, in all kinds of weather, the direction of the wind. 17. The young travelers visited nearly all the ports of the world. 18. Santa Claus comes silently in the night, and fills the stockings of the good boys and girls. 19. "We saw light, graceful sloops, and slow, clumsy barges in the busy harbor. 20. Did you practice your lesson on the violin faithfully to-day? 21. Can you make a rose or a lily, or catch a beam of the golden sun? 22. The brave old plant in its lonely days Shall fatten upon the past. — GhaHes Dick&ns, 23. He goes on Sunday to the church, And sits among his boys. — Longfellow. 24. A dainty white village looks down upon the bright blue waters of the Mediterranean. 25. Many funny little fellows live in the sea and carry their houses upon their backs. ♦ 26. A big parrot was solemnly blinking his eyes in a wind'o'w of the next house. 27. Many bank-bills have red silk threads along the edges and across the ends. TBS INTERJECTION. 81 LESSON XXXIV. . THE INTERJECTION. Thus far we have studied seven classes of words, called parts of speech — ^the novm,, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, and conjunction. To tell the class to which any word in a sentence belongs, we must find out its office or fv/nction in the sen- tence. It is only when a word is related to other words in a sentence that it can assist in expressing thought The function of the same word in different sentences may be different ; hence, it may belong to different parts of speech. Thus, the word near may be. An Adjective.— Ji{ was a near approach to deaih. An Adverb. — Do not go near; stay a/wa/y. A Verb. — Whsn we near the ocea/n, it grows cooler. A Preposition.— -He Iwes near the mill. A Noun.— We talked about the near and the dista/rU. There is a class of words, however, that we some- times use without any kind of relation to other words in the sentence. They are used to show that we are very angry, or sorry, or glad, etc. In other words, they denote emotion or strong feeling. They serve to color with feeling .the thought of the sentence. Oh! how you hurt me I Alas I the poor m^an is dead. Pshaw ! I am not afraid of the darkness. Words used as oh, alas, and pshaw are in the pre- 82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ceding sentences are called interjections, and are followed by the exclamation (I) poi/nt. Definition. — ^An interjection is a word expressing strong feeling, and not related to other words in the sentence. Such interjections as oh, ah, ha, hem, etc., have no meam^ing. But we often use as interjections words that have meaning. Hist! did you hea/r tTiat noise f Hush! you'U wake the baby. Well ! what will you do about it f Beware! you may not Escape the next time. Words so used often stand for whole sentences, and although they convey a meaning as well as ex- press feeling, it is better to treat them as interjeo tions. Exercise 74. — Fill the blanks with appropriate irtr terjections selected from the following list : Oh? Helpl Hem! Good-bye! Ah I Hark I Whatl Pshaw I Lol Look! Behold I Pooh-pooh! Fie I Bang! Huzza t Indeed 1 How! Hallo! Hey! Ha, hal Why! Hurrah! Run! Come! Seel Well! There! Eh! Stop • Pop! Dear me! Bosh! Alas' Mum! O, dear! Shame! 1. ! what a noise you make ! 2. ! ! the procession is coming. 3. ! how did you get here? 4. ! you can not frighten me. THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. 83 5. 1 come again. e. 1 aren't you ashamed of yourself f 7. 1 did you hear that ? 8. 1 ! went the pistol. 9. 1 I am so tired. 10. 1 to-morrow is holiday. 11. 1 what has happened now? 12. ! 1 the watch-dogs bark. 13. ! ! the house is a-firel 14. 1 you are hurting me 1 15.- 1 what a funny boy you are. 16. 1 1 are these all the berries you picked f 17. Where is my mamma? 1 Vm lost I 18. 1 it's time to get up. 19. Where, 1 where is that mischievous boy? 20. ! I knew you could not do it. LESSON XXXV. THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. Heretofore, we have spoken about the adjective only when it is joined directly to the noun. But it is often separated from the noun it modifies by one of the forms of the verb &e. These forms are aw, is, are, was^ were^ has been, have heen, had heen^ win he, may he, might he, mar8e the adjectives.) 3. A pupil should be both polite and resx)ectful to his teacher. Subject. Predicate. ^^^P. A. polite S. N . pgpll P. T. shouldbe 11 respectfal to teacher |hls 4. The queen's jewels are rare and costly. 5. School-boys are happiest in cool clear weather. 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 6. My pet canary was cheerful in the morning and sober in the evening. 7. The poor little fellow is tired and sleepy. 8. Bats are fierce and vicious. 9. The notes of the canary are soft and silvery. 10. Dear, darUng, little Nell was dead. 11. Our sleep should be peaceful and dreamless. 12. The earth is nearly round. . 13. The head and throat of the chickadee are glossy black. 14. A house without children is quiet but dreaiy. 15. The humming-bird's eggs are pearly white and very small. 16. The audience at the opera-house was respectful and attentive. ' 17. Have you been kind and polite to your playmates to-day? 18. Q-eese are not silly, but steady and sensible. 19. The surprise and delight of the little one will be very great. 20. "Was not the poor orphan child often sad and lonely at school ? 21. Always be careful of the feelings of others. 22. The great clumsy elephant is very wise and very teach- able. LESSON XXXVI. THE PREDICATE NOUN. Verbs may be divided into two classes. 1. Verbs that can be used as predicates without the help of other words. These may be called verbs of complete predication. The horse runs. Flomers bloom. The ccma/ry sings. 2. Verbs that when used as predicates do not ex- press complete sense without the help of one or more THE PREDICATE NOUN. 87 other worda Such may be called verbs of incomplete predication. The hoy kUied the bird. TThs earth is round. OrarU was a soldier* In Lesson XXXV., the pupil learned about that Tose of the verb of mcomplete predication where some form of the verb be is completed by an adjective modifying the subject. In very much the same way, some form of he 1110;^ be completed by a noun denoting the same person or thmg as the subject. Homer was a poet. The W/y is a fVower. He may have been a genUeman. ArQvwr wiU be the victor. A noun used in this manner after the verb be is called the predicate notm, and it is always in the sa/rrve case a^s the subject. Definition. — ^A predicate noun is a noun used with a verb of incomplete predication, in the same case, and denoting the same thing, as the subject. EiERCiSB 77. — Complete the predicates by supply- vng suitable predicate nowas. Mention the verb in each sentence: 1. The hero of the story should be a brave good . 2. Frank will some time be a famous — — • 3. The giraffe is a harmless gentle . 4. England is a snug little . 5. The elephant is a huge clumsy . 6. My doll's name must be . 7. borne holes in a board were the to the bees* home 8. Poor Robert has long been a very sick . 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 9. Should the best pupil be of the class? 10. Easter in Gtennany is a great . 11. "You must be a very good to-day," said Lucy's mother. 12. Is the earth really a large ? 13. Maggie might have been the if she had not been a . 14. Philip may some time be the if he is always a studious . 15. The visit to the park was a delightful . 16. A little brown dwarf had been poor Tim's best in his loneliness. 17. We hope that Willie's frequent exercise on the lake may not lead him later in life to be a . Exercise 78. — Analyze by diagram the following sentences, explain the analysis, and parse all the nouns: 1. Ky mother is my kindest and dearest friend in all my troubles. Subject. Predicate. S. N. mother ^ P. V. 1b P. N. friend 'W my kindest aAd dearest In taroubles laU |my It IS a declarative sentence. (Give reasons.) The stUiJect is my mother. The subject noun is mother; it is modified by my. The predicate is is m,y kindest, etc. The predicate verb is is. The predicate nau/n is friend ; it is modified by the adjec- tives Tcmdest and dearest, and by the adjective phrase in dU my troubles; troubles is modified by all and my. Parsing. — Mother is a noun (give reasons) ; comr mon; feminine gender; third person; singular num- PREDICATE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. 89 her ; nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb is. Friend is a nov/n; common; feminine gender; third person; singular number; nominative case, be- cause it is used in the predicate with is. 2. Caesar was undoubtedly a statesman and a warrior. Subject. Predicate. 8. N. Cnsar P. Y. was P. N. statesman .^— 4i P. . N. > warrior undoubtedly i» 3. The present from my uncle was a genuine surprise to me. 4. A battle in these times is a fe£u:f ul scene. 5. Little folks are sincere believers in Santa Glaus. 6. Apples and peaches are a delicious fruit. 7. The beautiful silver moon is a dead world. 8. Kings and queens are generally unhappy people. 9. My pet donkey can be a very stubborn animal. 10. Little Susie, so pretty and sweet, will soon be a woman. 11. This beautiful country was once an unbroken wilderness. 12. Was not our vacation a happy, joyful time? 13. A good general must be a brave and earnest man. 14. Our darling wee baby is a most beautiful creature. 15. A sly fox from the neighboring forest must have been the destroyer of our chickens. LESSON XXXVII. PREDICATE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. There are some other verbs, besides the verb be in its various forms, that are used to connect a sub- 90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ject with a predicate noun or adjective. All such axe called verbs of incomplete predication. She looks pale. The hoy became a mem. Verbs of this kind connect the subject with, 1. A noun that is only another na/me for the thing denoted by the subject. Hence, the subject and the predicate nov/n are always in the same case. The dog is a faithfvZ aninuU. The man seemed a gentte^ man. George was made captain. 2. An adjective denoting a state or quality of the thing denoted by the subject. The tvitness r&mamed silent. The man grew sick. The door stood open. TTie rose smells sweet. My blood ra/n cold. In meaning, verbs of incomplete predication diflfer but Uttle from the verb be. A prepositional phrase may take the pletce of a predicate adjective. It is then called the predicate adjective phrase. The wownded ma/n was under the doctor* s cao'e. He seemed on the edge of (he precipice. Exercise 79. — Mention the verbs of incomplete predication in the following sentences, cuad tell which words are predicate notms, and which are predicate adjectives : 1. The pupils were very tired and listless boys, 2. The poor child soon got very sick indeed. 3. The berries tasted sour, and seemed worthless fruit. 4. William became sad because his teacher looked ill. PREDICATE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. 91 5. The birds grew tamer as they got familiar with us. 6. Under the hot sun of summer, apples grow large and mellow. 7. A child should keep quiet when older persons are present 8. The weather stays warm and sultry. 0. Her remark sounded harsh and impolite. 10. Rip Van Winkle remained a poor man. 11. Napoleon was considered the greatest general of his age. 12. The boy was named "Washington, in honor of the Father of his Country. 13. The man was called a coward because he stood a patient listener to the taunts of his enemy. 14. You should sit straight and walk erect. 15. You should 16ok pleasant when a visitor calls. 16. Whai seemed a head wore the likeness of a crown. ExBROiSB 80. — Mil the blank in each of the follow^ i/ag sentences with one of the pair of words given, a/nd tell what part of speech you use, and why : 1. glad, gladl/y. He looked when the teacher praised him* 2. Mgh, hdghly. The river rose and did great damage. 3. sad, sadly, Annie felt very when her canary died. 4. had, badly, Bessie felt because she missed her lesson. 5. splendid, splendidly. The jeweler's window looked 6. safe, safely. The ship reached port . 7. safe, safely. We passed through the rapids. 8. sweet, sweetly. Those evening bells sound and low. 0. soft, softly, I like eggs boiled . 10. idle, idly. The tired hands wandered over the keys. 11. comfortable, comfortably. His coat fitted him and felt . 12. strong, strongly. The rope was made enough to support a heavy weight. 13. T^elpless, helplessl/y. The man was found in a snow* drift. 14. smooth, smoothly. The river flowed to the sea. 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15. qudck, qiucMy, Run for the doctor. Be . 16. sou/nd, sowndLy, These apples seem to be . 17. wr&tdhed, luretohedly. The forlorn old man looked — =b 18. pitiful, pitifuMy. The lost child cried most . 19. cold, coldly. The winter moon looks down upon ua. 20. Tia/rsh, TiarsMy, The prisoners were treated most . 21. 7uj/rsh, ha/rshly. The teacher looked at the boy. Exercise 81. — Analyze the following sentences, ex- plain the analysis^ and parse the nouns and adjeo tives: 1. Some African tribes are called cannibals by the rest of die world. Subject. Pzedloate. 1 8. N. tribes P. T. are called P. N. cannibals Some I by rest African ithe lof worid jthe 2. The bear lies in sleep during the winter. Subject. Predicate. 1 I 1 S. y. bear P. V. li^s P.^A. In^leep I The Y during winter I the (The phrase, during the winter, is adverbial, modifying Ues in sleep,) 3. The beautiful moon rose clear and full. 4. Phebe is a graceful and dainty housewife. 5. The cat sits quiet and alone by the fire-place. 6. The boat was left, a broken and leaky wreck. 7. Our baby daily grows lai^er and lovelier. 8. The breezes of summer are soft and balmy. APPOSITION. 93 9. A good name is the jewel of our souls. 10. The laxk seems brightest and happiest in the early morning. 11. The eye is called the window of the soul, 12. Small service is often true service. 13. Wit is not always wisdom. 14. Her voice was so©; and gentle music. 15. Dusty and dim are the eyes of the miller. 16. The notes of the nightingale were clear and distinct. 17. The walk up the hill became dull and tiresome. 18. The catbird is the clown of the woods. 19. G-reece is a land of mountains and of floods. 20. The army and the navy are our defense in time of war. LESSON XXXVIII. APPOSITION. An adjective used to modify a noun has the effect of showing more exactly what the noun denotes. The heroic WasMngUyii. Her soldier lover. Much the same thing happens when a noun or pronoun is explained by another noun or pronoun. Washington, the hero. Her lover, the soldier. He, the speaker, is very eloquent. A noun used as hero and soldier are used above is said to be in apposition. This word means placed beside, and it is chosen because the appositive generally stands immediately after the word it ex- plains. An appositive is always in the same case as the word it explains. When, however, a noun in the 7 94 ENGLISH ORAMMAR, possessive case is used with an appositive, only the appositive has the sign of the possessive case (* or 's). Chrant, the genenxVSy graA)e is by the Hudson. Definition. — ^An appositive is a noun or pronoun used to explain another noun or pronoun. Exercise 82. — Mention the appositives, give their caseSj and tell with what word each is in apposition : 1. Herod, the Boman governor, beheaded John the Baptist. 2. Arnold, the traitor, died wretched and forsaken, in Lon- don, the metropolis of the world. 3. The children were delighted with the story of Jack the Giant-killer. 4. The head of the family, Mr. Brown, was a grave, sedate 5. We were guided by our old acquaintance, the trapper. 6. My dog, my dear dumb friend, lies at my feet. 7. Do you know the story of Brian, the brave king of Ireland? 8. My son Louis and my daughter Lilian are both at school. 9. Lafayette, the friend of our fathers, is gratefully remem- bered by us. 10. Behold her, yon soliteiry Highland lass. 11. Shakespeare the poet and Bacon the philosopher lived during the reign of Elizabeth, Queen of England. 12. Jessie, the bewitching little fairy, dances her way into all our hearts. 13. Old Shep, an intelligent collie dog, takes care of the sheep in the park. 14. The mother tearfully parted from her boy, the brave soldier. 15. Daniel Boone, the pioneer of Kentucky, endured many hardships. 16. The moon, that lovely lantern of the night, outshone the fire-fly's light. THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 95 LESSON XXXIX. THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. We have learned that when a noun is the subject of a verb, it is in the nominative case; and that when it is the object of a verb, or of a preposition, it is in the objective case. In like manner, a pronoun that is the subject of a verb is in the nominative case; and one that is the object of a verb, or of a preposition, is in the objective case. Again, that form of the noun used to denote ownership is in the possessive case; and likewise a pronoun that denotes ownership is in the possessive case. This likeness in the use of nouns and pronouns is shown below: m. Fbrms, Boea, Florms, Jfom. Forms, 0^, FOftM. John ' r Mary's i John f Mary I my I you We our We him You He - saw- your his u- ^ You ■^"^- He - saw • me us She her She her It its It it They - ^ their - They - . them The word Mary's^ and all the possessive pro- nouns in the column of possessive forms above are mx>difieTS of lyird. Pronouns used to modify nouns are called adjec- tive pronouns. 96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. My hook and his sUUe were lost. Which man is tlieir wncHe f The pronoun it is sometimes used as the subject of such verbs as rams^ snows, etc. In this case it is said to be impersonal; that is, n^t personal. It hoMs. It storms. It grows dark. In such sentences, it does duty as a subject with* out denoting an actor. Some of the personal pronouns in the third person have forms that indicate gender. They are he, his^ him, she, her, it, its. All the others fail to indicate gender, but it is generally shown in some other way H the personal pronouns be arranged so as to show in an orderly way the forms that denote gen- der, person, number, and case, we have : THE DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Nominative ; Possessive : Objbotivb : FUtar PEB80N. SECOND FBBSOir. Singular, Plural. Singular. Sing, or F9ur. I we thou you, ye my, mine our, ours thy, thine your, yours me us thee you, ye THIBD psBaoir. Maac. Sing. JTem, Sing. Neut. Sing. PharaL Nominative: he she it they Possessive : his her, hers its their, theirs Objective: him her it them DEFiNmoN. — The declension of a noun or a pro- noun is an orderly arrangement showing its changes to denote gender, person, number, and case. THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 97 Exercise 88. — Fill the blanJcs with pronowns^ and tell the person^ number^ and case of each. Tell also which are adjective pronouns. 1. Besdie recited lessons well, because had studied welL 2. wish would come with into the garden. 3. The boy played with top and the girl with doll. 4. Next week shall go with cousins to Boston. 5. "Give the book," cried. 6. listen, children, and will tell a few things about life. 7. The shepherd and companion did all that was in — I)ower to recover lost sheep. 8. Then the little Hiawatha Learned of every bird language. Learned names and all secrets. How built nests in summer. Where hid themselves in winter. — LongfeUow. 9. The man took the little girl in arms and kissed ^ and said, " owe life to , brave little maid." 10. Tom went at lesson with a will, and soon struggled out of difficulties, for Polly helx)ed here and there. To the pronouns, mj/, ov/r^ thy^ yowr^ him, her, it, and them is added the word self or seVoes to form a class of words called COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Fint Penon, Seoond Ptrmm, TMrd Psrton, If [ ^^^^^ Angular: myself \ y®~ \ herself lyouTBelf Ij^j, Plubal: ourselves yourselves themselves The compound personal pronoun is used, 1. Somewhat in the way of an appositive; not, nowever, to explain, but for the sake of empJiasis, 98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. J, myself, did the work. Tou, yoursel/ves, cvre to blame. 2. As the object of a transitive verb. In this case, it denotes the same person or thing as the sub- ject, and the verb is said to be reflexive. I hurt myself. They dressed themselves. 8. As the object of a preposition. They thought only of themselves. He worked by himself in a comer. Exercise %4:.^In the following, mention the per^ sonal, adjective, interrogative, cmd compound personal, pronouns. Tell also wMch verbsl are re- flexive : 1. What is the use of talking, if you have nothing to say? 2. Pray tell me, little Katydid, what did poor Katy do? 3. Oh I what did you have at the party, dear Nellie? Cakes, oranges, candies, and every thing nice? Did you bring any home? What is that in your x>ocket? Oh I say, did they send us some good orange ice? 4. Let us hasten to that spring, and refresh ourselves with its cool water. 5. Bees gather honey for themselves, and men rob them of it. 6. The king built himself a great palace. A pronoun, like a noun, may be used with a verb of incomplete predication, in the same case, and denoting the same thing as the subject. It ia then called a predicate pronoun. Exercise 84 a. — Mention the predicate pronouns^ and tell the verbs completed by them : AJTALTSIS, SYNTHESIS, AND PARSING. 99 1. Was it she who broke the window? * 2. It was not I. 3. It must have been he. 4. Who was it that lost her glove? I. 5. I did not know that it was he. 6. Was it the neighbors* children who picked the flowers » N^o, it was not they. ExEBCiSE 84 b. — Fill the blanks vnth pronov/ns, tell the case of each, and give a reason for its use : 1. Give the book to John and . 2. John and own the book. 3. It is you and who will be rewarded. 4. Did Mary ring the bell? No, it was not . 5. This is the place for Billy and . 6. He and are brother and sister. 7. Did these boys break the window? No, it was not — . who broke . 8. Who wants to go with ? . 0. Did you see Alice and this morning! LESSON XL. ANALYSIS, SYNTHESIS, AND PARSING. Exercise 85. — Analyze the followi/rig sentences, a/nd parse the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives : 1. Every pine, fir, and hemlock wore a white mantle of snow 2. A big buzzing bumble-bee flew to the top of the tulip tree. 3. A great iceberg moved uneasily, and then plunged its high cfowned head beneath the waves. 4. A lively young turtle suns himself on a mossy log in that pond. 5. Can you not soothe the frightened child with tender lov- ing words? 6. The broken clouds sailed off in crowds, across a sea of glory. 100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 7. A million little dicunonds twinkled on the trees on that spring morning. 8. The sun rose above the hills, and sent its rays down on the old farm-house. 9. The elephant, a quiet, well-trained beast, was confined in a large, cage. -1 Sttb^eot. Predicate. S. N. elephant (beast) . P. T. waa confined iThe la ^^ lineage ■ quiet a I well-trained | large 10. A good voice has a charm in speech and in song. 11. The fern seeks the shade and shuns the sunshine. 12. Cotopaxi is the highest and most terrible volcano in the world. 13. Sir Ralph the Rover tore his hair And beat his breast in his despair. 14. Fierce winds often sweep over the desert and fill the air with thick clouds of sand. 15. Marie, a sweet-faced French girl, is our children's nurse. 16. The strong euid stalwart oak-tree catches the de\r in its many dainty cups. 17. Cluck-a4uck sat on a high fence, and crowed, and tumbled backward, and broke her neck. 18. The queen of the bees sits on her dainty throne, and scolds her worthless subjects, the lazy drones. 19. Strains from a distant guitar floated languidly and dreamily to my ear. 20. The. patient squaw lifted her droll papoose to her back and started on her weary march. 21. The microscope reveals to us many wonderful and beautiful creatures. 22. A wreath of evergreen, a Christmas token, hangs in my window. 23. The dew fell into the heart of a rose and lay in a blissful dream. Z^ On a sunny hillside grew a little colony of May-flowers TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 101 LESSON XLI. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. Whenever the action expressed by a verb is rep- resented as beginning with an actor and passing over to something that receives the action, the verb is transitive. Whether a verb is transitive or intransitive de- pends altogether upon the way it is used. Many verbs may be used either transitively or intransi- tively. Some examples follow. TrantiUve. InirantUive. The boy flies a kite. The bird flies swiftly. He rtms the coach. The horse nms along the road. The conductor started the The train started from the sta- train. tion. The rain stopped the play. The rain stopped at noon. Sometimes, in order to save words, we leave out the object, and express action without referring to any particular object. Thus, we may say, Ths boy reads, meaning that he reads books or other printed or written matter. In like manner, Men buildy and time destroys, is a shorter way of saying Men build houses, wad time destroys houses. When the name of that which receives the action is omitted, the verb is said to be intransitive. Either the object or the subject of a transitive verb may denote the receiver of the action. The sunset brightened the hills. The hiUe were brightened by the stmset. 102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, In both of these sentences the word hills denotes the receiver of' the action. Again, Owr gardener plants the seeds early. The seeds are pkmted early by our gardener. The receiver of the action is denoted by the ohfect in the first sentence, and by the subject in the second. The object of a transitive verb may denote the same person or thing as the subject. When this is the case, the verb is said to be reflexive. We guided ourselves by the sound of the schooUbeU. The moon hid itself behvnd the clouds, ExEBCiSB 86. — Explain the following sentences i/n dccordcunce with the models: 1. The boy struck his brother. Analysis.— The subject is The boy: the predicate is struck Ma brother. The subject noun is boy: the predicate verb is struck: the object noun is brother. The actor is denoted by the subject noun boy: the receiver of the action is denoted by the object noun brother. The verb is tramsitmet because the action passes over to a receiver of the action. 2. The ice in the river will be thawed by the warm sun. Analysis.— The subject is The ice in t?ie ri/ver: the predicate is unU be thawed by the warm swn. The subject noun is ice: the predicate verb is wiU be thawed. The actor is denoted by su/n, which is the object of the preposition by: the receiver of the action is denoted by the subject noun ice. The verb is transitive, because the action passes over to a receiver of the action. TRANSITIVE AND INTBANSITIVE VERBS. 108 S, The apples were gathered in October. Analysis. — ^The subject is The Ofpples: the predicate is w&re gathered m October. The subject noun is apples; the predicate verb is were gathn ered. The actor is not mentioned ; the receiver of the action is de- noted by the subject noun apples. The verb is transitive, because the action passes over to a receiver of the action, 4. I did not eat yesterday. Analysis.— The subject is I; the predicate is did not eat yesterday. The' subject pronoun is J; the predicate verb is did eat. The actor is denoted by I; the receiver of the action is not mentioned. The verb is intransitive, because the receiver of the action is not mentioned. 5. "Wellington defeated Napoleon at "Waterloo. 6. The lambs gambol in the meadow. 7. "William Penn purchased Pennsylvania from the Indians. 8. The great waves dashed themselves against the cliff. 9. The door of the safe was opened by the burglars. 10. The boys gathered a great many chestnuts. 11. The drowsy cattle lie under the oaks by the brook. 12. The dead leaves were blown hither and thither. 13. A large snake was killed near the school-house. 14. Fire destroys much property every yesu:. 15. I can hear the thrushes in the lilacs. 16. Mary plucked a beautiful flower for her teacher. 17. The judge promptly sentenced the prisoner. 18. The winter sun lies abed late. 19. The babies played in the sand at the beach. 20. His future was ruined by strong drink. 21. The flreman rescued a woman from the burning building. 22. Did you practice your lesson on the violin to-day? 23. The man in the moon makes ugly faces at the stars. 104 BNQLISH GRAMMAR. 24. The woods against a stormy sky their giant branches tossed. 25. John was punished for disobedience. 26. Victor Emmanuel formerly governed the kingdom of Italy. 27. When did Columbus discover America? 2A. Why did you neglect the opportunity? LESSON XLIL THE ACTIVE AND THE PASSIVE VOICE. There are two very different ways of using a transitive verb. 1. The object of the verb may denote the receiver of the action. John soAJotd the wood, WWda/m struck Henry* In this case, the person denoted by the subject, acta^ and the verb is said to be in the active voice. 2. The subject of the verb may denote the re- ceiver of the action. The tvood was sa/wed by John. Henry loas struck by WaUam. In each of these sentences, the subject of the verb denotes the receiver of the action, and the verb is said to be in the passive voice. The word passive Is used because the person or thing that receives the action often suffers by doing so, and passive means suffering. The name of the actor preceded by the preposi- tion by generally follows a verb in the passive voice. THE ACTIVE AND THE PASSIVE VOICE. 105 But we may often wish to express an action as re- ceived by some person or thing, and yet not men- tion the name of the person or thing that performed the action. This is done by omitting the phrase consisting of hy and the actor's name. The wood was sawed. Henry was struck. Any sentence containing a verb in the active voice may be changed so that the verb shall be passive. ' The wmtef^s cold destroyed many birds. The swn's rays light amd warm the earth. The farmer tviU plow and harrow the field. AonvK Voice. Passive Voice. Mcmy birds were destroyed by the tuinter^s cold. The earth is lighted and warmed by the stm. The fi>eld will be plowed a/nd harrowed by the foArmer. The intransitive verb can not be varied in this manner, and it has, therefore, no voice. Definition. — ^Voice is the form of a transitive verb that shows whether the subject denotes the actor or the receiver of the action. Definition. — A transitive verb is in the active voice when its subject denotes the doer of the action. The mdce ate the cheese. The teacher loves her pupils. Definition. — ^A transitive verb is in the passive 106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, voice when its subject denotes tiie receiver of the action. The house tuas destroyed hy fire. The cheese was eaten. ExEBOiSE 87. — Tell which verbs are used transit lively, and which i/titransitively. Mention the object when the verb is transitive. 1. "Wherever you lead, general, we soldiers will follow." 2. John leads his little brother, and they follow the police- man across the street. 3. The foreman directed the men to push with all their power. 4. Henry pushed his sister off the side-walk, and one of his classmates told of the impoHte act. 5. The Ught-hearted girl skipped along the street. 6. The idle boy skipped stones along the surface of the water. 7. Some persons swing their arms too much in walking. 8. The girls swing in the grove from morning till night. 9. ''I shall not freeze to death during the long walk, but I may freeze my ears." 10. To see John delight in his lessons, delights the hecuii of his mother. 11. In the afternoon we read and spell, and draw pictures on our slates. 12. He read a poem very well, and spelled a diflScult word. Exercise 88. — Tell which verbs are in the active i^dce, and which are in the passive voice. 1. Bread is sold by bakers. 2. A tree was struck by lightning. 3. The merchant had been robbed. 4. The teacher will solve the example. 5. The boys will be detained. 6. His duty had been neglected. 7. The damage can be repaired. 8. John had torn his book. THE ACTIVE AND THE PASSIVE VOICE. 107 9. The lightning struck the steeple. 10. The horses were fed this morning. 11. My task has just been finished. 12. The children were throwing stones. 13. A noise was heard in the street. 14. The garden has been dug. 16. Meat is sold by butchers. 16. The cakes were eaten by the boys. 17. The letter will be finished in an hour. 18. The purse will be found somewhere in the house. 19. The house might have been entered by burglars. 20. The children were frightened by the dog. 21. The teacher will be pleased by the exercise. 22. During my walk I found a beautiful wild-flower. 23. The life of Socrates was destroyed by poison. 24. At his return he was welcomed by the Emperor. Exercise 89. — CTiange the followmg sentences so that verbs in the active voice shall 6e m the passive voice, and the reverse. 1. Food sustains life. 2. The letter was written by John. 3. Americans visit Paris. 4. Evangeline was written by Longfellow. 5. Ethan Allen captured Ticonderoga. 6. The doctor saved the child's life. 7. Electricity was drawn from the clouds by Benjeonin Franklin. 8. Demosthenes delivered many very eloquent orations. 9. Cicero defeated the conspiracy of Gataline and his friends. 10. The Czar of Busaia was assassinated by Nihilists. 11. America was discovered by Christopher Columbiis. 12. Great Britain was invaded by the Bomans under Julius CsBsar. 13. Fast steamers cross the Atlantic Ocean in less than seven days. 14. Milton composed one of the most beautiful of all poems. 108 ENQLian GRAMMAR. 15. The boy has been told of his duty many times by the teacher. 16. The burglar was caught in the house by a policeman. 17. Shylock demanded a i>ound of flesh from Antonio's body. 18. Food wa9 brought to Elijah by ravens every morning and evening. 19. Many an evening by the waters did we watch the stately ships. — Ten/nyson, 20. The jingling of the guinea helps the hurt that Honor feels.— Termyfion. LESSON XLIII. INDICATIVE AND IMPERATIVE MODES. No sentences are used so much as the declarative and the interrogative. The declarative sentence simply states or asserts something as a fact ; the in- terrogative sentence expresses an inquiry. Assertion.— /Snot^; is white. The sun shone. The man has not come. The lUy uHU soon bloom. The bird had flown away. Inquibt.— i0 she pretty? Has the letter been written? Does the cat resemble a tiger f Have they not gone? In sentences like the foregoing, the verb that as- serts, or that expresses the question, is in the in- dicative mode. The word mode means manner, and the word indicative means declaring, making known, or in- dicating. Less frequently the verb is used for the purpose of expressing a command. A verb so used is said to be in the imperative mode. Since it is only the person or thing addressed INDICATIVE AND IMPERATIVE MODES. 109 that can be directly commanded, the subject of a verb in the imperative mode is always a pronoun of the second person, — thou^ you, or ye, — ^and it is gen- erally omitted. The subject is then said to be understood. (You) Come here, (You) Open your eyes, cmd (you) look arotmd you. (You) Look out for the Imnp ! Turn not thou OAJoa/y, See you to your own affairs. The imperative mode is sometimes weakened in meaning so as to express an entreaty, or a mere request. Excuse the poor child. Visit us agadn. Definition. — Mode is a form or use of a verb that indicates the manner in which the action or state is to be regarded. DEFiNiriON.— The indicative mode is that form or use of a verb by which it expresses a statement or a supposition as a fact, or asks a question. He has not gonfS. WiU you solve the exoffnple 9 If Tie is weaZthy, he is not a gentleman. Definition. — The imperative mode is that form or use of a verb by which it expresses a command, a request, or an exhortation. Go thou a/nd do likewise. Take off y&wr hai. Exercise 90. — In the following selections, point out the verbs, and tell the mode of each : 1. My little one came, and brought me a flower. Never a sweeter one grew ; But it faded and faded in one short hour, And lost all its prettj blua 110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 2. The boys camped for two days, until the tired animals became rested. 3. Oh ' do not look so sad, my dear. And cease that dismal frown. 4. What is the lullaby she sings As back and forth she swings and swings? 5 When night came, and the yeUow moon flooded the plain with light, the sight was very strange. 6. There I sweep these foolish leaves away! I will not crush my brains to-day. Look' are the southern curtains drawn? Fetch me a fan, and so begone I — O. W, Hdknes. 7. She swept the hearth up clean, And then the table spread; And next she fed the dog and bird. And then she made the bed. 8. I pray thee, where do you go to-day? The strong wind is blowing, the heavens are gray. Do you go to the Northland, far, far away? 9. The fairies whisper, " Come and play. The sun is shining bright." And when I fling my book away They flutter with delight. LESSON XLIV. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Another form of the verb is employed in a state- ment or supposition about an event or state of things that is only thought of, and is not regarded by the speaker as true. Were he a giant, I should not fear Twm. Had I the wi/ngs of a dove, how soon I should see you agadn. Unless the sky feUl, we shaM, catch no larks. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Ill In the preceding sentences, the verbs in hlack" feuded type are said to be in the subjunctive mode. The word subjwactive means joined in an inferior or subordinate relation to something. This mode is never used alone, but in a sentence of two or more branches called clauses. The clause containing the verb in the subjunctive mode is dependent upon another clause of greater importance called the principal, or independent clause. SiOordinats (Matue. Principal Cknue. Except ye he converted, ye shall not enter the Kingdom of Heaven. Unless the day be fine, I ahaU remain at home. If wishes were horses, beggars m,ight ride. Provided he apologize, I shall forgive him. When the supposition is thought of by the speaker as a fact, or is treated as such, the verb is in the indicative mode. If the earth is rovmd (and it is), men may sail arotmd it. If he com^es (as I believe he will), he shall have a pleasant ti/me. The clause containing a verb in the subjunctive mode, 1. Puts its verb before the subject: Were I he, I should go, JBe he wise or ignorant, he has made a mistake. Were he alme, he wotUd now he a m,an. 2. Puts its subject after the first part of a verb C5onsisting of two or more words: 112 ENQLian GRAMMAR. Shauid it rain, 1 8?um not come. Mad ?^ been kitted, it would ?ia/ve been better. CknUd he have remained, he should now be oMve 8. Is introduced by a conjunction expressing dotibtj tmcertainty, or a mere supposition, such as if^ tJumgh, tmlessj except, lest, tTiat, etc. Though h^ faM, he shovM try agcrni^ Unless he speak the truth, he will not esoape. I hope that he may come. Definition. — ^The subjunctive mode is that form or use of a verb by which it expresses a state- mentf or a supposition, not as a fact, but merely as thought of. Thy Jomgdom come. Thy wiU be done. Were the mxxm la/rger, it would give more light. BxBROiSB 91. — Tell which verbs are in the indic- ative mode, and which m the subjunctive; mention Cblso principal clauses and the subordinate classes : 1. If he is a scholar, he is not a gentleman. 2. Provided he work, I shall pay him. 8. Although he had only one eye, he saw more than I did. 4. Although I had a hundred eyes, many things would escape my notice. 5. Had you come earlier, you could have seen him. 6 Although he came earlier, he was still too late. 7. Though man dies, he may live hereafter. 8. Unless he die, he will certainly return to his home. 0. Whether a man is good or bad, depends much on his early training. 10. Whether he be poor or rich, he shall be punished for his crime. 11. Be he guilty or innocent, he deserves our pity. INFINITIVE MODS. 118 12. Were he my own brother, I should not excuse his fault. 13. Although he is my brother, he should be protected. 14. Though honesty is the best policy, dishonesty often, for a long time, escapes detection and punishment. 15. If he is an excellent swimmer, he can not swim so far as to the wreck. 16. If he be a good swimmer, he may recwh the shore. 17. Unless the farmer sow, he must not exi)ect to reap. 18. If a man works hard during the day, he rests all the better at night. 19. We should start at once, lest we be late for the train. 20. The man will not be admitted to the hospital, unless he is sick. 21. Should he lose himself in the woods, he would climb a tree to look around him. 22. I wish that we were wealthy, provided wealth brought no additional care. 23. He could not have been kinder, if he had been my brother. 24. Take care that your youth be well spent lest you bo shamed in old age. LESSON XLV. INFINITIVE MODE. There is a form of the verb that is usually pre- ceded by the preposition to, and is said to be in the infinitive mode. It is used, 1. Merely to name the action in the manner of a noun. To live is all Tie asks. To be believed comes from always speaking the truth. 2. To denote the purpose or the cause of the action expressed by some other verb. 114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, I went to see 7mn. The sotoer went forth to saw. We were glad to see h4m. The word infinitive means unli/rnited. The term is used because this form of the verb undergoes no change, — is not limited^ — ^when the person or number of its subject is changed. A verb in the indicative mode is changed or Umited in accordance with varia- tions in the person and number of its subject. \igo. ' They told me to go. iNmOATlVE Thou goest. Infinitivjc They told thee to go. Mods. He goes* Mode. They told him to go. . We go. . They told us to go. The subject of a verb in the infinitive mode is generally omitted, but when expressed it must be in the objective case. The preposition to is called the sign of the in- finitive, but it is often omitted, especially after the verbs 1>id, dare, feel, hear, see, let, make, need, etc. Bid Tmn come. We dared not go, I saw hvm die. You need not hurry. We felt the earth tremble. Exercise 92. — Tell the modes of tJie verbs in the fdUowvng : 1, I would not be a leaf, oh no. To wait for April winds to blow Before I should have power to grow. 2, The professor was said to have traveled all over this country and Europe. 3. As soon as young birds are strong enough to fly, the old birds try to induce them to use their wings, but they are rather slow to learn. VERBALS. 116 4. We have hearts to feel and hands to do, And eyes to pierce the darkness through. 5. Hear the rain beat against the window. 6. When we need not go out-doors, we are content to let the north wind blow. 7. The children saw the lightning flash and felt the house shake, and were so frightened that they dared not stir. 8. A student of great enterprise Went out early to see the sun rise. 9. The rain wakes the roses and makes them smile. 10. The master bade the boys hurry ; not a moment was to be lost. 11. The tourists were to have sailed in the morning, but were compelled to wait until evening. 12. He hears the parson pray and preach. He hears his daughter's voice Singing in the village choir, And it makes his heart rejoice. LESSON XLVI. VERBALS. There are two classes of words that have the nat- ure of the verb, arid, in addition, that of the noun or adjective. They are called verbals. They are, 1. The gerund, or verbal noun. Like any other noun, the gerund may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or of a preposition. He tuas arrested for stealing. I was charged tuith having written the letter. Playing haU is fine sport. He toAJbgM singing. I regretted being late. He apologized for having spoken angrily. He complained of having been treated badly. 116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. The participle, or verbal a^djective. It re- sembles the verb in expressing action or state, and the adjective in modifying nouns and pronouns. We saw a hoy flying a kite. The enemy, having been defeated, tuithdrew. Seeing the multitudes, he went up into a moumtoA/n. The men, having finished their work, went home. Both the gerund and the participle may be, 1. Simple or compound. ^ i Gerund. — He was purmhed for not trying. ( PoHioiple, — Strolling along the beach, we foumd shells. ' Gerund. — He was detained for having missed his lesson. Participle. — Having been reprimamied, he was discharged. Compound. - 2. OTransitive or intransitive. (Gerund. — Picking berries is pleasant work. Participle. — Having washed his hands, ho began to write. i G'erimd. — We admired fheir singing. * ( Participle. — We hoard the birds singing. 8. Active or passive. (Gerund. — Smoking is inju/riotis to health. Pa/rtidple. — Believing that he would return, we waited. i Gerund.— Being deceived makes us distrustful. Participle.— The bear, badly wounded, fled to the woods. Definition. — ^A gerund is a verbal used as a noun. We escaped by swimming the river. He is fond of study- ing. He was punished for having been tardy. Skating is a valuable exercise. VERBALS. 117 The gerund is sometimes preceded by the articles a, cm, or the. The ringing of a beU prevented owr Tvea/rvng the ticking of the clock. We hea/rd a dapping of homda. Definition. — ^A participle is a verbal adjective. Hearing a noise, I went to the toindow. Having worked dU day, toe were tired. The prisoner, having been censured, tuas set at liberty. A participle immediately preceding the noun it modifies should be parsed as a verbal adjectwe. (See p. 60.) Hunniti^ water is not so easily frozen as standing water. Exercise 98. — Tell which of the verbals in the followihg are gervmds, and which are participles. Mention also the verbal adjectives: 1. We, being very weary, rested ourselves by lying in the shade. 2. Quickly advancing, he gave the signal by clapping his hands. 3. Hoarding money is the only business of his life. 4. Having climbed a tree, the monkey amused himself by throwing cocoa-nuts at his pursuers. 5. Having overcome the difficulties of his lessons, he is fond of being praised. 6. The rising of the sun aroused all the sleeping caravan. 7. Sword, on my left side gleaming, What means thy bright eye's beaming? 8. The stars are tiny daisies high. Opening and shutting in the sky; While daisies are the stars below, Twinkling and sparkling as they grow. 118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 0. Grandma says our modem dcmcing Would have shocked without entrancing Gentle people long ago. 10. He thinks, my dear little brother, so knowing. That feather-bed fairies do all the snowing; He thinks the feathers come sailing down. Making the snow that whitens the town. LESSON XLVII. TENSE, The verb, as we have learned, has something in its form or its use to denote the mode of the action. But this is not alL The timej also, of the action or state expressed by a verb may be indicated.. Thus, the forms see, go, am, run, love, express action or state in the present; while past action or state is denoted by soaju, went, wa^s, rem, loved. This pecuUarity about the verb, by which it shows the time of the action or state, is called tense, — a word meaning time. Time is divided into present, past, and future; hence, there are three principal tenses — ^the present tense, the past tense, and the future tense. PBE8B1IT TBiraB. PAST TBirSB. I am* I was. I walk. I walked. I shaU he. I shaU walk. Tense is denoted in two ways : 1. By the form of the verb itself This happens TENSE. 119 only in the simplest form of the present and past tensea Pbes. Tskse.— / sitf swim, lave, laugh, carry, cry. Past Tensb.— /«af^ swam, laved, laughed, carried,, cried. 2. By the aid of certain forms of other verbs called av;xiliary verbs. The phrases thus made are called verb-phrases. The following are some ex- amples of verb-phrases: Pbesent Tekbe.~J atn waXking, may lave, da succeed f do I su4sceed? Past Tense.— J was riding, had been riding, had sue* ceeded. FuTUBE Tense.— J shaU see, shaU be walking, shaU have laved. By means of some peculiarity, either in the form of the verb itself, or in the verb-phrase, action, either in the present, past, or future, may be de- noted, 1. As indefinite. These forms denote the action as belonging somewhere in the indefinite present^ past, or futurCo PAST TEKHI. VUTDBB TBN8B. I write, I wrate, I shaU write, or I do fvrite. or did write. 2. As progressive or incomplete. These forms denote not only that the action is in the present, past, or future, but that it is action going on, or in progress. For simplicity, the tense names are the same as for indefinite action. 120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. nosBHT nam. past tevbb« fdtdbb tshbb. I am, writing. I was wtHting, I sliaU he wriHng, 8. As perfect or complete. These forms denote action that is perfect or finished at some definite point of time in the present, the past, or the future. The tenses of completed action are, FBB8.-PXBrB0T TBNSB. PA8T-PXBrB0T TBK8B. FUTUKK-PBBVEOT TJBMSJC. I have written. I fund written. I shail have written. The tenses of completed action have a form to denote that the action before completion is continu- Otis, and not momentary. The tense names, however, remain the same. PBB8.-FBBFB0T TBN8K. PAST>PXBTBOT TEN8B. I have been writing. I had been writing. I shall have been tvriting. We have, therefore, six tenses in all; the present and the present-perfect; the ^as^ and the pastrperfect ; the futv/re and the future-perfect. The indicative is the only mode that contains them all. All the foregoing tense forms may be made in- terrogative^ generally by putting the subject after the first auxiliary, or after the verb. Does Tie aing 9 Did you go f Wa>8 she {here 9 They are made negative by introducing the ad- verb not after the first auxiliary. I shdU not go. He may not have seen you. EXERCISES ON THE TENSES. 121 LESSON XLVIII. EXERCISES ON THE TENSES. Exercise 94. — Tell the tense of each verb in the followmg eccercise: 1. I write. He is walking. Are you going? I am sorry. 2. Was he sick? I went away. The bird flew. The wind whistled. 3. Will you go? We shall be late. He will run. You shall not go. Mary will be sewing. 4. We have been working. Has the messenger returned? Have the pupils recited? Has school been dismissed? 5. Had he finished his work? The boy had fallen from a tree. Had they been excused? They had not been detained. 6. His task will have been performed before you return. 7. Did he come? The time has passed. The bird chirps. 8. The horse ran away. Do you see the crowd? Are they here? 9. Had he arrived when you left? The boy has been skating. 10. They will have heard the news before you leave. 11. I was eating my dinner when he called. 12. He had finished his work and had gone home. 13. Have you read that book more than once? 14. We shall have traveled twenty miles before night. 15. If you will call, I shall be pleased. 16. Where shall we spend our vacation? I do not know. 17. One night last summer we sat and watched the meteors. 18. We had been working hard and were very himgry. 19. ** ru take a kiss," said little Hal ; His loving mother said, " You shall." 20. The poor boy had been hurt when he was very young. 21. Every student of history has learned that the battle of Bunker Hill was lost to the Americans because they had not enough powder. 122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LESSON XLIX. AUXILIARY VERBS- Certain forms of several different verbs may be joined to form what is called the verb-phrase. The verb-phrase is extremely useful From its form we are able to determine, 1. The voice of a transitive verb. AonvB Voice. — were seeing, hcwe loved, shall finish. Pasbiys Voice. — tuere seen, ha/ve been loved, shaU be finished. 2. The tense of any verb. Pbesent.— am going, may walk, ccm he done. Past. — was going, might wdOc, ootUd. he done. FuTUBE. — shaU be going, shaU walk, ttnU he seen. 8. The condition of the action; that is, whether it is to be thought of as perfect, or as progressive. Perfect.— ^as gone, was loved, had been fownd. Progressive.— /kw been going, was loving, had been finding. The last word in a verb-phrase is derived from what is called the principal verb; all the others are helping or auxiliary words. The verbs from which they are derived are called atixUiary verbs. The auxiliary verbs are do, be, have, shrill, wHZ^ may, can. They may sometimes be used also as principal verbs, as may be seen from the following examples : Troy waSf but is no longer. He tviUed otherwise. Henry did the work, and already has hds pay. AUXILIARY VERBS. 128 We have seen that the infinitive without to is used after such verbs as see, hear, feel, etc. I saw h4m go* We heard 7Um Mng. I felt (he house shake. Long ago, however, these infinitives were known by their endings. Moreover, the verbs that we now call auxiliaries were regarded as principal verbs, and verb-phrases were unknown. So that in such sentences b& I do go, and He will come, the first verb was not an aux- iliary, but a transitive verb, having for its object an infinitive used as a verbal noun. In a similar way, the words in even the longest verb-phrase might be parsed separately, but it is more convenient to treat the verb-phrase as a single word. A large variety of verb-phrases may be formed with these eight auxiliaries. The following table contains the verb-phrases, as well as the simple forms, in both voices, and in all the modes and tens^ of the transitive verb love: INDICATIVE MODE. . 1 lave. awi ^™ \dolove. is \u»dng. "^^l^V u Voice. \ ^ , \ ocm ) be laving, J does love. are J " Passive 1 . ] laved, or may) , ^^^ Voice, f *^ \ being laved, ccm ) } areJ ^ 124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I! rAonvK ( Icwed. was \ w^^,^^ might \ Uwe, or Voice. ) did love, were ( ^^' could J he Unking. Passivb ) was ) loved, or might ) , ^ Voice. J were J hemg loved. cotM \ loved. AcnvE ) shaU Voice. )8haa \ S wUl ) love. shaM wiU Passive ) sJidll Voice. ) shall \ ^ \wiU \^ loved. !• be loving. Si Active ) Tuwe \^ loved, or Voice. ) lias J been loving. ^^'"^i^ibe^ loved. Voice, j has ) may Tuwe ) loved, or ca/n ha/ve ) been loving. Tnayhave cam,han)e been loved. a2 Active ) Tvad loved, or Voice. Shad been loving. y had been loved. Voice. ) Active | *7i^ I /^foreH. '^ \ ?uwe been laving. Voice, j iwK ) wiU ) ^ Passive | shaU Voice, 5 ) shall \ \,\ will 1 /iai;6 been loved. AUXILIAhr VERBS. 125 SUBJUNCTIVE MOD] ACTIVK V0ICE< .V'- wnless, etc. Passive 1 ^^ . Voice, r^'^^'^^-^ ' J, 106, thou, you, he, she, . U, they J, we, thou, you, he, she, it, they love, do love, he lov* ing; or ma/y, can lovCp or he lovm ing. he loved; or may, can he loved. 51 Active Voice. Passive . Voice. }./, )* 5 Active Voice. .}^'' Passive Voice >■ unless, etc. tmle8a,etc. tmle8s,etc. wnless, etc. I, we, thou, you, he, she, it, they I, toe, thou, you, he, she, it, they I, we, thcu, you, he, she, it, they I, we, thou, you, he, she, it, they loved, did love, were loving; or might, covM love, or he loving, were loved; or might, could he loved* had loved, or Tiad heen loving* >■ had heen loved. Active Voice [ If, u/rUess, etc. j J^^^ [ should, or would love. Passive 1 ^ - , ^ \ I, we, 1 should, or wouM he , VoiCB.}^^'"'»^'«**'{2/o«.etc. ]u»ved. 126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. IMPERATIVE MODE. Active 1 lave^ love thou or ye ; do love, or do thou or ye Voice. J love; be loving, or be thou or ye loving. Passive 1 Voice I ^ ^^^9 or fte ^/k>w or ye loved. INFINITIVE MODE ' AOTTVE Present Tense. ^ __ r To love. To be loving^ Passive! ,,, , , , __ \To be loved. ^ Voice. J Present-Per- fect Tense. Active Voice. l To hcuve loved. To Tuwe been loving __ \ To ?ia/ve been loved. ^ Voice. J PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS. ' AoTTVB 1 , . 1 ha/ving loved, or Voice. J ^^* Perfect. I Jicmng been J loving. ^^"""^iMngla^. p^^^ ] loved, ovha^ Voice. J J been loved. By arranging in an orderly way the verb forms that, in the various modes and tenses, correspond to the pronouns J, we, thou, you, he, they, when they are used as subjects, we have what is called conjuga-' Hon. The verb see, partially conjugated, will illus- trate. AUXILIARY VBRB8. 127 INDICATIVE MODE. AfBlim Vcioe^ P re tent Tma$, OCfMMOV VOBM. nCPHATIO lOIOL -^ eUnff, FUw, Sing, Ihtr, 1st pers. I see, me see, 1st. pers. I do see, we do see, 2d " thou seest, you see, 2d " thou dost see, you do see, 3d " 7^ sees, they see. 3d " \e does see, they do see. SInff, Mur, PR0OBK88IV1B f ^^ P©r8on. J am seeing, we are seeing. FORM I ^^ " ^'^^^ ^^ seeing, you are seeing. 1 3d " he is seeing, they are seeing. sing. Ifur. ,^T^^^r^ . ^.r^ r ist person. do I see f do we see f J 2d " dost thou see? do you see f FOBM. i 3d " does he see? do they see f The progressive form is made interrogative by placing the subject after the auxiliary ; thus, am I seei/ngt etc. Exercise 95. — Conjugate the verb love as follows. 1. Active voice, indicative mode, present tense, common form ; emphatic form ; progressive form ; interrogative form ; interrogative-progressive form. 2. Same voice, mode, tense, and forms with the auxiliary may: ccm. 3. Passive voice, indicative mode, present tense. Also with may: co/i^* 4. Active, indicative, past, common form; emphatic form; progressive form ; interrogative form ; interrogative-progressive form. Exercise 96. — Oive the following conjugations: 1, Of the verb see in active, indicative, present, commoo form ; progressive form ; emphatic form. 2. Same verb in active, indicative, past, same forms as In (l)t 128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 3. Of the verb ^ro as in (1). As in (2). 4. Of the verb walk in those tenses of the indicative contain- ing the auxiliaries have and rna/y, 5. Of the verb prove in those tenses of the subjunctive that contain the auxiliary should. LESSON L. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. The verbs in our language have been divided into two great classes, regular verbs, and irregular verbs. These classes are known by the kind of change that must be made in the simplest form of a vero in order to get the simple form of the past tense and of the past participle. The simplest form is the present infinitive or the first person of the indicar tive present, and when to this simplest form the addition of d or ed will give both the past tense and the past participle, the verb is said to be regular. When these two parts are formed otherwise, the verb is irregular. PBB8. nrDIOATIVB. PAST XlTDIOATiyB. PBBF. PABTIOIPUB. ^ ,^ { zudSc walked walked Regular Vebbs. ] . . , , ^ , [,love loved loved mtg sa/ng stmg Irrkgut.ar Verbs. ' go went gone see saw seen These three forms, together with the present par^ ticiple, are called the principal parts of the verb. They are very important, since, by knowing them REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 129 for any verb, we are greatly aided in using correctly, not only every verb-phrase, but also every simple tense-form, for that verb. To use the principal parts of a verb in forming the various verb-phrases, the pupil should be famil- iar with the following rules : Rule I. — The present infinitive, when preceded by the auxiliary do, gives the present indicative and the past indicative, emphcUic form. I do see. Thou dost see. He did see. Rule n. — The present infinitive, when preceded by the auxiliaries may or can^ gives the j^otential form of the present indicative; preceded by might or could, the potential form of the past indicative. I may sing. Me might sing. Rule 111.— The present infinitive, when preceded by shall or will, gives the future indicative. I shaU see. You wiU see. We shaU see. Rule IV. — Verb-phrases denoting progressi/ve aC' tton or state contain the present participle of the principal verb. 1 cum gahhg. He has been going. We were going. Rule V. — Verbphrases denoting completed aC" tton contain the past participle of the principal verbf preceded by have or had. I have gone. We had seen. He wiU have sung. 180 BNQLian GRAMMAR. Rule Yl.^-Hvery verb-phrase of the passive voice contains the past participle of the principal verb, preceded by some part of the auayiliary he. I atn seen* He has been hurU We had been deceived. For use, as explained in the next lesson, we give below a list of the most important IRREQULAR VERBS. Verbs marked B. have also refiralar forms. PNt.3ld. Fiutlhd. I^Hlf, J^BFt, Prea.Jnd Pott Ind, PUym xvrC Am, or be was. been. Drive, drove. driven. Arise, arose, arisen. Dwell, dwelt, R. , dwelt, R. Bear (c-vrry), bore, borne. Eat, (ate, Jeat, -eaten. Become, became, become. Fall, fell. fallen. Begin, began. begim. Feel, felt. felt. Behold, beheld, beheld. Fight, fought. fought. Beseech, besought. besought. Find, found. found. Bid. bade, 'bid, bidden. Flee, fled.. fled. bid. Fling, flung. flung. Bind. bound. bound. Fly, flew, flown. Bite, Bleed, bit, bled. bitten, bled. Forget. forgot. J forgotten 1 forgot. Blow, blew. blown. Forsake, forsook. forsaken. Break, broke, broken. Freeze, froze. frozen. Bring, brought. brought. Gtet, got. ,got, gotten. Bxnm, R., burnt, R., burnt. Buy, bought. bought. Give, gave. given. Catch, caught, caught. Go, went. gone. Choose, chose, chosen. Grind, ground. ground. Come, came, come. Grow. grew. grown. Dig. dug, R., dug, R. Have, had. had. Do. did, done. Hear. heard, heard. Draw, drew. drawn. Hide, hid, (hidden, ■jhid. Drink, drank, di-unk. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS, 131 Prw. /nd. Patt Ind. Aiy. JPoft, JYes, JhJ. Fati JhJ. Psrf, Part, Hold. held. held. Slay, slew. slain. Hurt, hurt. hurt. Sleep, slept. slept. Keep, kept, kept. Slide, slid sHd, slidden. Know, knew. known. Lay, laid. laid. Speak, spoke. spoken. Lead, led. led. Spin, spun. spun. Leave, Lie left, lay. left, lain. Spring, (sprang, 1 sprung. •sprung. (recline). Stay. staid. staid. Lose, lost. lost. (remain). Make, made. made. Steal, stole, stolen. Mean, meant. meant. Stick, stuck. stuck. Meet, met. met. Sting, stung. stung. Pay, Read, . paid, read. paid, read. Strike, struck. struck, stricken. Ride. rode. ridden, rode. String, Strive, stnmg, strove. strung, striven. Ring, (rang, Irung, rung. Swear, Sweep, swore, swept. sworn, swept. Rise, Run, rose, ran, risen, run. Swim, swam, swum. •swum. Say, said. said. Swing, swung. swung. See, saw. seen. Take, took. taken. Seek, sought. sought. Teach. taught. taught. Sell, sold. sold. Tear, tore. torn. Send, sent. sent. Tell, told. told. Set, set. set. Think, thought. thought. Shake, shook. shaken. Throw. threw. thrown. Shine, Shoot, shone, R. shot. , shone, R. shot. Tread. trod. trodden, ' trod. Show, showed. shown, R. Wear, wore. worn. Ryi-rinV shrank, shnmk. shrunken. Weave, wove. woven. shrunk. Weep, wept. wept. Sing. sang, ' sung. •sung. Win, Wind, won, wound. won. wound. Sink, sank, sunk, I sunk. Wring, wrung. wrung Write, wrote, written. Sit, sat. sat. 1S2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LESSON LI. ORAL DRILL ON IRREGULAR VERBS. Mistakes in the use of certain irregular verbs are of such frequent occurrence that a special oral drill is given below. Exercise of this kind should be practiced very frequently, with the object of making the correct verb-phrases so familiar to the pupil that they will take their place in his daily speech. Even in primary grades this drill should be introduced. The explanation of the drill will suggest such un- technical language as could properly be used in a primary class, and teachers of grammar grades can introduce technical terms wherever they are con- venient and appropriate. Pabtb. I CFOB THE BliAOKBOABDO lAe lay lyitig iaiiu Oo went going gone. ' on the aofa wh&a I am Ured. tmder a tree cmd read my hook, to schooi in like old red achool^house. (Other suitable endings mxyhe given for tlie sake of variety.) EXPLANATION. 1. The meaning of the following terms should be taught: PreaerU, past fuUure, progreaaive, inierrogaiive, deeHaraUve. I 1 We Tau He He lies They She go goes Mary The bays. ORAL DRILL ON IRREGULAR VERBS. 183 2. Four sets of verb-phrases are to be taught; viz.: 1. Common declarative; 2. Common interrogative; 3. Pr^ gressive declarative ; 4. Progressive interrogative. These should be known by the pupil both by number and by name. 8. The drill should be in four tenses; viz.: Present, past, fubwre, and prea&nt-p&rfect. The first three may be known by their names, and the last may be called "the form with have." 4. After putting the necessary matter on the board, the teacher says only ^^ Present^ oney A pupil gives the common, declarative, indicative, present. Thus, for the verb lie: "I lie on the sofa wh&th I am t4red" " We lie on the sofa when we are iwred.** He continues, until all the subjects have been used. 5. The teacher may first finish the four forms of the present, or may pass to another tense; thus, ^'Past, two.'' The pupil recites: IHd I lie, etc. ? IHd we lie, etc. ? I>id he lie, etc. ? Again, " The form with have, three'' I have been lying, etc. We have been lying, etc. Maay JuMs been lying, etc. In response to ^^Futv/re, four," the pupil should recite: ShaU I be lying on the sofa, etc. ? Shixll we be lying on the sofa, etc. ? WUl you be lying, etc. ? (The auxiliaries shaU and wiU are used as follows: 134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. Shall is used in the first person, and tviU in the second and (Mrd persons to announce future emotion, or to inquire about future acHon. 2. WiU is used in the first person, and shall in the second and third persons to make a promise, or to eacpress tJie de~ tertnination of the speaker •) 6. The teacher should make the drill sentences of considerable length, to avoid sing-song, and should change them frequently, for the sake of variety. Other points of importance can be made a matter of drill in connection with the drill on the verb. If this driU be persistently practiced, the teacher will soon be convinced of its value by noting the disappearance from the speech of her pupils of such expressions as I have saw, came, went, etc. 7. A synopsis of the four forms, in the tenses proposed, i? as follows: Present, one.— J go to school, etc. We go to school, etc. Pbesent, two.— />o I go, etc. ? I>oe8 she go, etc. ? " THREE.— J am, going, etc. He is going, etc. " FOUR.— win* I going, etc. ? Are you going, etc ? Past, one.— J went to school, etc. " TWO,— IHd I go to school, etc. ? ** THREE.— J was going to school, etc ** POUR.— IFa« I going, etc.? Future, one,— J shall go, etc. " TWO,— Will you go, etc.? " THREE.— J shaU be going, etc. Ma/ry wiU be going, etc. TuTURE, TOVB.'^Shall I be going, etc. ? Will Tie be going, etc.? The form with have, one.— J have gone, etc. ** ** " •* TWO.— Have I gone, etc. ? •* " " " THREE.— J have been going, etc. ** •* ** " FOUR. — Have I been going, etc. AQREEMENT OF VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. 186 LESSON Lll. AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. The verb undergoes certain changes of form cor- responding to changes in the person and number of its subject. Thus, in the active^ indicative^ present^ of the verb 8ee, and in the same mode and tense of the verb he, we have : SnrOTTLAB. PLUBAL. ■OroULAB. FLUmiL. 1st PKBSON. f J see, We see, I am. We are, 2d " < Thou seest, Tou see, T?iou art, Tou are, 3d " [He sees. They see. He is, They are. Those modes in which changes of this kind oc- cur are called finite modes. The finite modes are the indicative, mbjvmctive, and imperative. These changes produce what is called agreement between a finite verb and its subject. The infinitive mode is so named because there is no agreement between a verb in this mode and its subject. (See page 114.) The verbals also are not finite. These variations in the form of the verb are so simple that a mere outline of tense-forms in the several modes is a satisfactory substitute for the con- jugation of any verb. Such an outline is called a SYNOPSIS, — ^that is, a connected view. A synopsis usually consists of the first person singular of every tense in the indicative and sub- junctive modes, and the imperative, infinitive, and 186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. verbals complete. The pupil should be very famil- iar with the following SYNOPSIS OF THB VBRB BM. nrDioAnra xodb. Present. I mn. Past. I was, VuTUBE. I shaU, or wiU 5d. Pbesent Pebfbcjt. I Tuwe been. Past Pebfbot. I had been. FuTUBE Pebfegt. I shoU Tuwe been, or vnU have been, 8UBJUJIUT1VE XODB. Present. {If) I be. Past. {If) I were, or should be. Pbesent Pebfect. {If) I hcvoe been. Past Pebfegt. {If) I had been, or should ho/oe been. FuTUBE. {If) I should or woiUd be. Pbxbent. DfFBBATiyX XODS. UUrUHTlVK XOX»B. iBe ihou or you; or Pbesent. To be. Do thou or you be. Pbes. Pebf. To h/ovoe VBRBALS. FABimFUM. OSBUHML Present. Be^. Pbesent. Be4ng. Past. Been. Pbes. Pebf. Saving been Pbes. Pebf BCaving been. Exercise 97, — Gfwe principal parts^ a/nd synopses of the foUowvag verbs : 1. Of write in active, indicative, second, singular. 2. Of kmgh in subjunctive, first, singular. 8. Of run in third, singular, complete. 4. Ot see in passive voice, first, singular, complete. 6. Of come in first, plural, complete. 6. Of &6 In second, singular, complete. DEFECTIVE YERBB. 137 7. Of dHnft in passive voice, indicative and subjunctive, with water as subject. 8. Of thwrik in passive voice, complete, with H as subject. 9. Of do in first, singular, active, complete. 10. Of «i^ in third, plural, complete. LESSON Llll. DEFECTIVE VERBS. You have learned that the present infinitive, the present participle, the past indicative, and the past participle, of any verb, are called its principal parts. A verb that lacks any of these principal parts is called a defective verb. All the auxiUary verbs are defective. Shall and wiUj originally present tenses, are now used to form the future tenses in the indicative mode, and occa- sionally as principal verbs. Their past tenses, sJiould and would, are now used sometimes to form the fu- ture tenses of the subjunctive mode, sometimes as principal verbs. In the sentence, I should go, meaning, / ought to go, should is a principal verb, indicative mode, past tense, modified by the infinitive go. Similarly, in the expressions, -He would go (mean- ing that he had made up his mind to go), might have come, could have come, must come, must have come, would, might, could, and must are to be parsed as in the indicative mode, modified by the infinitives which follow. In analyzing sentences, however, it will often be convenient to regard the entire expression as the predicate verb. 138 SNGLIBH GRAMMAR. In deciding whether may, can, shall, will, &e, hcuve, might, could, would, or should, is an auxiliary or not, it is necessary to decide whether it marks the tense, the mode, or the voice, of another verb. If it does not mark any one of these, then it is not an auxiliary. Exercise 98. — Decide whether the finite verbs {when used with infinitives) in the following sentences are auodliary or not, giving your reasons: 1. You have done that you should be sorry for. 2. Milton I thou shouldst be living at this hour. 3. Who would be free, himself must strike the blow. 4. They feared that he might be carried off by gypsies. 5. She was as fair as fair might be. 6. You would be taught your duty, I suppose. 7. If thou wilt, thou mayest make me clean. I will; be cleansed. 8. I have you caught and fast bound at last. 9. If he insults you, you should still bear in mind your own dignity. 10. Before Abraham was, I am. LESSON LIV. PARSING THE VERB. To parse a verb is to give its principal parts ; to. state whether it is regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive; and, if transitive, whether it is in the active or the passive voice ; to give its mode and tense ; and to state its person and number, as determined by the person and number of its subject. Exercise 99. — In accordance with the model, pa/rse all the verbs in the following selections : mFINITIVB PHRASSa. 139 1. I come not to steal away your hearts. Model.— Gome is a v&rh; principal porta f come, came, camr ing, come; irregular, intransitive, indicative mode, present tense, and, to agree with its subject J, it is in the first person singular. To steal is a verb; principal parts, steal, stole, steaUng, stolen; irregular, transitive, active voice, infinitive mode, present tense. It is the principal part of the adverbial phrase to steal a/wa/y yowr hearts, which modifies the meaning of the verb com^, 2. Years following years steal something every day. 3. Three wives sat up in the light-house tower. 4. I stood in Venice, on the Bridge of Sighs. 5. I could lie down hke a tired child. 6. To every man upon this earth Death cometh soon or late. 7. The sun himself looks feeble through the morning mist. 8. A suppressed resolve will betray itself in the eyes. 9. My dear friend, make yourself at home. 10. No mate, no comrade, Lucy knew. 11. Where have the pretty violets gone? 12. You should not whisper in school. 13. In a very few minutes, I shall have finished my task. 14. May I carry your basket? 15. I have called to see you. LESSON LV. INFINITIVE PHRASES. In Lessons XXIX. and XXXIL, you learned that a preposition with its object and the words that modify the object make up what is called a prepositional phrase, and that a prepositional phrase may be used as an adjective or as an adverb. You will afterwards learn that a prepositional phrase may be also used £ts a noun. 140 BNQUBH GRAMMAR. You are now to learn about another kind of phrase, the infi/nitive phrase. A verb in the infinitive mode may be modified by an adverb ; it may be completed by an object or by a noun or adjective complement; and it may have a subject in the objective case. I r^oioe to hear of your triu/mph. We are commcmded to forgive our enemies. Try to be a ma/n. We win try to be happy. The tedoher ordered me to talk less. The infinitive, with the words that complete it, is called an infinitive phrase. . The infinitive phrase may be used in the following' ways: 1. As an adjectiva The work to be done to-day is easy, 2. As an adverb : a. Modifying a verb. A sower went forth to sow some seed, b. Modifying an adjective. lam glad to see you. c. Modifying an adverb. STieis too pcUe to be beauUfM. 8. As a subject noun. To climb steep hiUs requires dow pace atflrsL 4. As an object noun. I itke to walk fast, Achise him to study. Twos about to go on, 5. As a predicate noun. To see is to believe. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 141 6. As an appositive or explanatory modifier. Itiaa am to speak deceUfiiUy. 7. Independently. To teU the truth, I was discouraged. Exercise 100. — Analyze the following sentences by putting them into diagrams : 1. The Greeks learned from the PhcBmcians how to build ships. Subject. Predicate. 8. N. GrcclM P. V. learned O. P. to build jMgt ' The I from PhoBnioians J how I the 2. To do good and to distribute, forget not. 3. It is good to be here. 4. I am sorry to hear it. 5. The children had a long lesson to learn. 6. The colonel ordered the soldiers to march. 7. The ship seems to sail very fast. 8. Perseus promised to procure the Gorgon's head. 0. The stranger did not appear to be a friend. 10. To be candid, I was not just in my dealings with him. 11. Eobinson Crusoe did not have his parents' consent to go to sea. 12. The child is large enough to travel alone. 13. The college student is about to become a lawyer. LESSON LVI. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. The simplest form a sentence can have, is that in which a subject noun or pronoun is joined to a suit- 10 142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. able verb, or to a verb and its object, so as to form a statement, a question, or a command ; as, Birds fly. Mary ate the apples. Such sentences may be lengthened by the addition of modifiers ; but so long as these modifiers are words or phrases, and not clauses, the sentences are still simple. Thus : Did the wolf in the fable eat the gen- tle little lambf Any element of a simple sentence may be com- pound ; as, Mary and Lily gathered and pressed violets and buttercups. DEFiNirioN. — A 8l/m^le sentence is a sentence containing one subject and one predicate, either of which may be compound. Every sentence contains a subject and a predicate. The subject of a simple sentence may be a noun, with or without adjective modifiers, or the equivalent of a noun. The equivalent of a noun in a simple sentence may be : 1. A pronoun. He Uvea m EasUm. We Hoe in the United States. 2. An infinitive, or an infinitive phrase. To forgive is wise. To read weU requi/res much practice 8. A gerund. Walking is a healthful exercise. 4. An adjective used as a noun. The good are happy. THE SIMPLE SMNTENCB. 143 The predicate always consists of or contains a verb ; as, We eat. Cows eat grass. The other elements that a simple sentence may contain are: 1. Complements of the verb. The complement of a transitive verb is called its object^ which may be a noun or any one of its equivalents. Some verbs are said to take both a di- rect and an indirect object. Qh)e him food. They asked me questions, Tou may call food the object of give, and regard him as an adverbial modifier of give, equivalent to to him. Regard me as an adverbial modifier of asked, equivalent to of me. The complement of an incomplete intransitive verb is called the predicate noun, pronoun, adjective, or phrase ; as, Orant was a soldier. It is he. Some verbs in the passive voice are completed by a predicate noun or adjective ; as, The house was pa/inted red. The boy was named John. 2. Supplements of the verb. Some transitive verbs take not only an objective complement, but a supplement ; as, He mude the door fast. In this sentence, fast modifies the meaning of door, and at the same time supplements the meaning of the verb by defining the action performed on the door. The meaning would be the same if we said, He fasU ened the door. 144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR A noun or pronoun used in this way is said to be a supplement of the verb, and an appositive modifier of the object. Other examples are: He painted the house red The officer struck the soldier dead. 3. Adjective modifiera Equivalents of an adjective are: a. A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case; 6ts, My hark is on the wave. The tnov/ntai/n^s crest towered above us. b. A noun in apposition ; as, Longfellow^ the poet, was greatly beloved. c. An adjective phrase ; as, T?ie desire to please is praiseworthy. The boy, having finished his task. went to play. The harp of Tara is silent. Note. — In form, an adjective phrase may be inflmUve (Lessor LV.), prepositional (Lesson XXIX.), or pctrtidpidl (Lesson XLVl.) An adjective or its equivalent may modify the meaning of a noun in three ways. a. As an attributive modifier ; as, The brown horse. b. As a predicate adjective ; as, The horse is brotan^ c. As an appositive modifier; as, The aged man^ stiff with rheumatism and spent with toilj hobbled along. They found him dead. 4, Adverbial modifiers. Equivalents of an adverb are : a. A noun in the objective case, called an adver- bial objective, the equivalent of an adverbial phrase, denoting quantity, time, etc. ; as, We rode ten mileSc The book cost a dollar. The sermon lasted an hour THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 145 b. A noun or a pronoun in the objective case generally denoting that to or for which something is done, the equivalent of an adverbial phrase; as, He gave tTames a book. c. A noun in the nominative absolute, accompanied by a participle ; as, Spring having come, the birds build their nests. Spring is said to be in the nomi- native case absolute, because its case depends upon no other word in the sentence. d. An adverbial phrase ; as. He rides on a bicycle. I called to see you. Note. — In form, an adverbial phrase may be prepostiionaZ (Les- son XXXII.), mflmtwe (Lesson LV.), or participial (c). 5. Independent elements. These are words that have no immediate relation with other words in the sentence. They are : a. A noun in the nominative case by address; as, JameSf where are you going? b. An adverb or a conjunction used to connect a sentence with a preceding sentence ; as, The messen- gerj however^ was not sincere. Q. Interjections. d. Phrases used independently ; as, To say the least, his conduct is very extraordinary. Exercise 101. — Analyze the following sentences by using diagrams or after the following model : 146 ENQLISH GRAMMAR. ♦1. Why did you not give him the book? "^ Note. — ^Notice that modifying words are placed immediately Cifter the element whose meaning they modify. A simple interrogative sentence. Subject Pronoun, you. Predicate Verb, did not give. Modifiers, 1. (to) h/im, adverbial phrase. 2. why, adverb. Object Noun, hook. Modifier, t?ie. 2. Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again. 3. His mother's last words, disregarded at the time, often came back to his mind. 4. Bom in a provincial town, the son of humble parents, ed- ucated in a third-rate grammar school, without the patronage of the great, and without having recourse to unworthy means, he fought his way to the highest distinctions. 5. Silent he stood, and firm. 6. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 7. He swam three miles on a cold day. 8. The wind being favorable, we set sail. 9. We shall make the most capable man among us our leader. 10. The reward of one duty is the power to fulfill another. 11. Why did you not give him some assistance? 12. In spring, the leaves appear upon the trees. 13. Who saw him die? 14. Bid the child come here. 15. To succeed is pleasant. 16. Is the dog to be shot? * In this scheme of analysis the words composing the snhject are indi- cated by drawing a single line nndemeatti. Those composing the predicate are indicated by drawing two lines underneath. RELATIVE PRONOUNS, 147 LESSON LVII. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. We- can unite the first two of the sentences given below by using the word who instead of repeating the name Washington, The sentence thus formed has two clauses connected by the pronoun who. The noun Washington is the antecedent of who. You ha/ve read of Washington, Washington was ov/r first President, You haA)e read of Washington, who was our first President, The other pronouns that are used to connect clauses are which, that, what, whose, and whom. They are i called relative pronouns. Definition.— A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to an antecedent and serves to connect clauses. Who is always in the nominative case ; whose, in the possessive ; and whom, in the objective. Tiie antecedent of what is never expressed. In meaning, what is equivalent to that which or the thing which; as, What is one Truants meat is a/nother man's poison. The compounds whoever, whichever, whatever; whoso, whosoever, whichsoever, whatsoever, are gener- ally used, like what, without an antecedent. I told the man tlutt wa^ here yesterday, I told my father, who uxis here yesterda/y. In the first of these sentences, the clause intro- 148 EN9LI8H QRAMMAR. duced by the relative pronoun fhat^ tells which man was told. The clause is said to be restriett/ve. In the second sentence, the relative clause intro- duced by who does not tell which father was told. The word who is in this sentence almost equivalent to and he. Rule, — A relative clause, when it is not restric- tive, is separated by a com/ma from the nowa or pro- noun whose meaning it modifies. Exercise 102. — In the following sent&nces, tell which of the relative' clauses are restrictive. Parse the relor- tive pronowns in accordo/nce with the model. 1. This is the boy of whom you spoke. Model. — Whom is a relative pronoun, because it relates to its antecedent hoy and connects the clauses, This is the boy and of whom you spoke. It agrees with its antecedent in third person, singular number, and masculine gender. It is in the objective case, because it is the object of the preposition of. 2. I like a boy who is manly. 3. He drew out his handkerchief, which little Marygold had hemmed for him. 4. DaffydowndiUy had a very strict schoolmaster, who went by the namfe of Mr. Toil. 5. Now came a rap over the shoulders of a little boy whom Mr. Toil had caught at play. 6. Have you not everything that your heart desires? Who and whom, are used only for persons ; which only for animals, plants, and things without life. That and whose may be used for persons, animals, plants, and things without life. Exercise 103.— Fill the blanks with suitable pro-, nouns. ADJBCTIVB CLAUSE MODIFIERB. 149 1. Those toil bravely are strongest. 2. Here's a little laddie will not fall asleep. 3. We wfiuit a boy we can trust. 4. Here is a rose petals are withered. 5. Mr. Toil was the man school Daffydowndilly attended. 6. TP is the prettiest little parlor ever you did spy. 7. He goes up your stairs can never come down again. 8. Tom Thumb was a bright little fellow, always knew what he was about. 9. The small wallet, hung about his neck, grew large enough to contain Medusa's head. 10. "Was it you broke my nap?" roared the giant. 11. Did Pcmdora's box hold «dl the trouble has come into the world? 12. Once there lived a very rich man name was Midas. 13. Midas had a little daughter nobody but myself ever heard of. LESSON LVIII. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE MODIFIERS. We hav6 learned that a group of words called a phrase may be used, like an adjective, to modify a noun or a pronoun. A group of words called a clause may be used in the same way. The ddjecHve clause differs from the adjective phrase in having 8 subject and a predicate. C on the table i Noun Modified ) „«. v 1 i-i. ^.u • x ^ V The box < with the cover >• is mine. ' ( from the store , ' ( that is on the table NoiTN Modified BT A Clause, ( that is on the table \ l The box ■< that has a cover V is ^ ( that came from the store ) mine. 160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Exercise 104. — Mention the nowa or pronoun modi- fled by each of the italicised clauses; a/nd, when pos- sible^ change each clause to a phrase. 1. They stood on a hill tJuxt overlooked the moor, 2. "It was the English," Kasper cried, *'who put the French to rout," 3. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot O'er the grave where ov/r hero we huried. 4. Her feet disperse the x>owder7 snow that rises up like smoke. 6. A book is a friend whose face never chcmges, 6. We trust not him who has once broken faith. 7. Sweet are the little brooks (hat run (y&r pebbles glancing in the sim, 8. It was the schooner Hesperus tTiat sailed the wintry sea, 9. He prayeth best who loveth best AH things both great and smaU. 10. It was the time wTien UUes blow, 11. A city that is set on a hiU cannot be hid. 12. Spring is the time whsn the swallows come. 13. Uneasy lies the head tJiat wears a crown. Exercise 105. — Point out the adjective clauses in the following sentences, cmd tell what each modifies : 1. This is the house that Jack built. 2. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme grows. 3. He jests at scatrs, that never felt a woimd. 4. I remember the house where I was bom. 5. Books are the legacies that genius leaves to mankind. 6. The bird that sings on highest wing. Builds on the ground her lowly nest. 7. No flocks that range the valley, free. To slaughter I condenm. 8. No tears dim the sweet look that Nature wears. 9. Those who live in glass houses should not throw stones. 10. The frogs thar asked for a king were eaten by a stork ADVERBIAL CLAUSE MODIFIERS. 151 LESSON LIX. ADVERBIAL CLAUSE MODIFIERS. A clause used like an adverb, to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, is called an ad/ver^ bial clause. The adverbial clause differs from the adverbial phrase in having a subject and a predicate. ^ ^ f in the morning. VERB Modified ) „ .\ j.-u * _ y He went < across the nver. BY A Phrase. \ / .^^ ^ -• ' ( with great speed. -_ _, . ( when he wajs called. VERB Modified ) _ ^ l , , ^ i, j i.. ^ y He went •< where duty called him BY A Clause. J / , ( as heroes go. A clause may modify an adjective. Boys are stronger than girls. Here the adverbial clause is tJian girls {are strong)^ and it modifies the adjective stronger. He is not so taU as I am. Here the adverbial clause as I arrtj modifies the adverb so. Exercise 106. — Mention the word modified by each of the italicised clauses : 1, After Bdbvason Tiad eaten, he tried to walk. 2. As Pamdora raised the Ud of the box, the house grew dark and dismal. 152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. Robert of Lincoln's Quaker wife broods in the grass while Tier husband sings, 4. WTierever he went, he was welcome. 5. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought. Whene'er is spoken a noble thought, Our hearts in glad surprise To higher levels rise. 6. Philadelphia stands where the Schuylkill joins the Dekb- wa/re. 7. Oome when you are ready, 8. WTien I breathe upon the Umdsoape, hard as stone becomes the water I 9. Hiawatha waited tiU the birch ca/noe grated on the shdmng pebbles. Exercise 107. — JPbint out the adverbial clauses in the following sentences, 'and tell what each modn ifies: 1. Cows come shivering up the lane when the East begins to blow. 2. The vessel struck where the white and fleecy clouds looked soft as carded wool. 3. The bells rang cheerily while a boy listened alone. 4. Do as I bid you. 5. Aladdin was rich while he owned the wonderful lamp. 6. The brown thrush sings as he sits in the tree. Exercise 108. — In the following sentences, tell which are adjective, and wMch adverbial, clauses. Tell also what each clause modifies: 1. Peaches will tedden for you to eat when the South be- gins to blow. 2. Build me a goodly vessel that shall laugh at all disaster. 3. "When the bough breaks, the cradle will fall. 4. I can weather the roughest gale that ever wind did blow. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES, 153 5. Do your work well while I am gone. 6. It was a time when everything was stirring. 7. This is the place where Lincoln is buried. 8. Stand where I ccua see you. 0. This is the land where our fathers died. 10. Boys that may be trusted are easily found. 11. Help those who are weak. 12. The little glowworm lights the groimd. While the beetle goes his roimd. LESSON LX. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. We have seen that a clause may perform the of- fice of an adjective or an adverb. It may also be used as a noun. Let us now learn how such clauses are introduced. Adjective Clauses. Tfm is the mem that feU. This is the place where Wolfe feU. The two clauses, This is the man and that fell, are connected by the relative pronoun that. Besides con- necting the clauses, the relative pronoun is used as the subject of the adjective clause. The two clauses of the second sentence, This is the place and where Wolfe fell, are connected by the word where. This word has two offices. Like a conjunction it connects clauses, and like an adverb it modifies the meaning of the verb fell. It is therefore called a con- junctive adverb. 164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Adjective clauses are introduced by relative pro- nouns or by conjunctive adverbs. Exercise 109.— jTo the following clauaea add ad- jective clavjses introduced hy the conjunctive adverbs when, where, wh/y, and whereby. Tell what each adjective clause modifies. 1. Tell me the time 2. Do you know the place 3. Would you like to know the reason 4. This is a school 5. There is a law 6. I remember, I remember the house 7. This is the hour 8. You will find in your book the rules Exercise 110. — To the following clauses add ad- jective clauses introduced by relative pronou/ns. Tell what each adjective clause modifies. 1. -ffisop was a Greek 2. Longfellow wrote many poems 3. Shakespeare was the greatest poet 4. "A Wonder Book" is a collection of stories 5. Have you read your new book 6. Have you heard of the poet Whittier 7. "David Copperfield" is a novel 8. A fable is a story 9. Longfellow, Whittier, and Lowell were men 10. Arithmetic is a study 11. Grammar is a study Adverbial Clauses. There are two ways in which adverbial clauses are introduced He tuiU go when you caU. Because he was good, I rewarded h4m. In the first sentence, the word ivhen is used like a conjunction, to connect the two clauses He will go and when you call. As an adverb, it modifies the meaning of the verb call. It is therefore called a ceru- SUBORDINATE CLAUSES, 166 junctive adverb. In the second sentence, the word because connects the two clauses. It is a conjunction proper. Because it serves to introduce a clause that depends upon another clause, it is called a subordi- nate conjunction. Adverbial Clauses are introduced by conjunctive adverbs or by subordinate conjunctions. - Exercise 111. — To the foUowvag clauses add adr verbial clauses, and tell what they modify. Mention the connectives used, and tell whether they are con- junctive adverbs or subordinate conjunctions. 1. The streets would be clean 2. New York is not so large 3. You will see the robin 4. The children must stay here 5. The boy stood on the burning deck 6. You may go 7. Beggan might ride 8. It must be raining 9. London is larger 10. He was so poor 11. You should think 12. Work 13. The dog did not know his mistress 14. Pandora should not have touched the box 15. You must try again Noun Clauses. The noun clause may be used— 1. As a subject. Where he is hurled 7um never been diaoovered. The word where introduces the noun clause Where hs is bu/ried. It also modifies the meaning of the verb is hwried. It is therefore a conjunctive adverb. 2. As an object. I acm that he was at home. He was earnest in what he did. The noun clause thai he was at home is the object of the 156 ENGLI8H GRAMMAR. verb sa/u). It is introduced by the subordinate conjunction that The noun clause whcd he did is the object of the preposi- tion in. It is introduced by the relative pronoun what. This pronoun is the object of the verb dnd. 8. As a predicate noun. Things are not what they seem. 4. In apposition. It is true that I am afraid. In this sentence, the noun clause that I am afraid is in apposition with the pronoun It Noun clauses are introduced by relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, or subordinate conjunctions, s. A short quotation containing a subject and pred- icate, when dependent upon a verb, may generally be regarded as a noun clause ; as, He said, "/ am tired:' Exercise 112. — To the following clauses add noun clauses, and tell how they are used: 1. The spider said to the fly 2. Commodore Perry's last words were 3. Have you ever heard it said 4. For a long time it was believed by astronomers 5. Are you acquainted with the fact 6. The judge said these words to the prisoner 7. I know 8. Is it true 9. The teacher made a rule 10. The brown thrush keeps singing A clause that is used as a single word — an ad- jective, an adverb, or a noun — is called a dependent or subordinate clause. Among the most common of subordinate con- THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 167 junctions are : as, while, until, because, for, aince^ if, unless, ecccept, thcmgh, that, lest, than, etc. Exercise 118. — Oive the subordinate clauses in the following sentences, tell how they are used, and tell the hinds of connectives employed : 1. I dreamed that life was Beauty. 2. I found that life was Duty. 3. When the ostrich gets tired, it runs from side* to side, or in a curve. 4. There was once a king who had three brave cmd hand- some sons. 5. "We shuddered there in silence, while the hungry sea was roaring. 6. We anchored safe in harbor when the mom was shin- ing clear. 7. I was only playing that I was ninety-nine. 8. Our homestead had an ample hearth where at night we loved to meet. 9. I used to think that the tops of the fir-trees were close against the sky. 10. Prospero told them that their ship was safe in harbor. LESSON LXI. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. You have learned that a simple sentence is a sentence containing but one subject and one predi- cate. A sentence containing a subordinate clause — whe- ther adjective, adverbial, or noun — cannot be a sim- ple sentence, for the subordinate clause must contain a subject and a predicate. 168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. A subordinate clause always depends upon another clause, called the principal claiise. When the birds were grown, they flew a/wa/y. In this sentence, they flew away is the principal clause, and When the birds were grown is the subor- dinate clause. The sentence is said to be complex. What hs said interested nobody. Here the principal clause is the whole sentence, and the subordinate clause is the subject. What he said. The sentence is complex. Sometimes a complex sentence consists of a prin- cipal clause and two or more subordinate clauses. While we were in school yesterday ^ we learned that the moon calluses the tides. In this sentence, the principal clause is we learned that the moon causes the tides. The subordinate clause, that the moon causes the tides, is used as a noun. The subordinate clause, While we were in school yesterday, is used as an adverb. Definition. — A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Exercise 114. — Analyze the foTkywvag sentences in accordance with the model: 1. That he came, is certam. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 159 (a) Complex declarative sentence. Subject, that he came, noun clause (b). Predicate Verb, ts. Predicate Complement, ce^taiUy adjective. (b) Noun clause. Connective, that, subordinate conjunction. Subject Pronoun, he. Predicate Verb, camne. 2. The evil that men do, lives after them. 3. We rowed on a pretty lake where water-lilies grow. 4. When the travelers resumed their journey, the rain fell in torrents. 5. The weary invalid begged that we would stay with him. 6. None return from those quiet shores. Who cross with the boatman pale and cold. 7. Each heart has its haunted chamber. Where the silent moonlight falls. 8. This world is but the rugged road that leads us to a fairer realm. 9. Every one who has looked at the map of Norway has noticed the singular character of its coast. 10. The pale moonlight fell upon the fisher's boat where it lay far out on the lonely sea. 11. The big trees that grow in the Yosemite Valley are the largest in the world. 12. The miller that lived by the Dee, worked and sang from morning till night. 13. Books give to all who faithfully use them the society of the best and greatest of our race. 14. The Sabbath is the golden clasp that binds together the volume of the week. 15. The flower that is called the dog-tooth violet is really a lily. 16. "Wherever you go," said the maiden, *'I shall follow." 160 JSJmZISH GRAMMAR. 17. To him who forgives much, much will be forgiven. 18. Many famous men and women followed Hawthorne when he was carried to his grave. 19. The strong man plodded through the deep snow until his strength forsook him. 20. A deer that had been wounded by the hunters darted across my path. LESSON LXII. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. Two or more simple sentences may be so con- nected by conjunctions as to form a sentence the clauses of which shall be independent Men may come. Men mxiy go, I go on forever. Men m>ay coTne, cmd men may go, hub I go on forever. In this sentence no clause is \ised as a single word — noun, adjective, or adverb — in one of the other clauses. The three clauses are independent, and the sentence is said to be compound. Sometimes an independent clause in a compound sentence is itself compound or complex. A ta/rt temper never mallows with age; and a sha/rp tongue is the only edged tool that grows Tceener with constant use. The second independent clause in this sentence is complex. Conjunctions used to connect independent clauses are called co-ordinate conjijmctions. Among the most THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 161 common of these are : and^ either^ or^ neither^ nor, hut, yet, also, Ukevnse^ moreover, besides, etc. Definition. — ^A compound sentence is a sentence containing two or more independent clauses. ExEBCiSE 1 1 5. — Tell which of the following sentences are compownd and which complex; also wKich clauses are independent and which suhordi/nate; mention the hinds of connectives used : 1. I went when he told me. He promised that he would come. 2. He was punished, and she was shut up in a dark room. 3. The moon is bright because the sun lights its face. 4. The teacher asked why I inverted' the divisor. 5. Lincoln was the President that set free the slaves of this country. 6. The foreigner explained in broken English whence he came and whither he was going. 7. More than two thousand six hundred years have passed away since Bome was founded. 8. As we wandered along the beach, we saw a beautiful steamer enter the harbor. 9. My father advises that we make hay while the sun shines. 10. I love the man that sings at his work. 11. One is scarcely sensible of fatigue while he marches to music. 12. Laziness travels so slowly that Poverty soon overtakes him. 13. The ornaments of a home are the friends that frequent it. 14. Beware of him that flatters you. 15. Never speak anything for truth that you believe to be false. 16. Careless people often speak before they think. 162 ENQLmH GRAMMAR. 17. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. And all the air a solemn stillness holds. 18. Wherever the bamboo is found in abundance, the natives apply it to a variety of uses. Exercise 116. — Analyze the following compov/nd sentences : 1. The gnow lay in great drifts in the deep ravines, and chilly winds whistled and moaned through the naked tree-tops. Coordinate clauses. (a) The snow lay in great drifts in the deep ravines. (b) Chilly winds whistled and moaned through the naked tree-tops. Proceed with the cmalysis of each clause as in preceding models* 2. The eyes of the "young man looked far into the future, and his fancy painted every thing with brilliant hues. 3. "We were much disappointed on account of our failure, and we requested our guide to lead us back to camp. 4. During the hot days of summer, cool breezes from the sea blow over the heated land, but warm land-breezes blow seaward at night. 5. Elephants are big and clmnsy, but they can run very fast. 6. Our bam is low and dim, and swallows sweep in and out through the doors. 7. One wren sang among the dark-green leaves, but the other was feeding two little open mouths. 8. The queen of the fairies rides in a i)ea-pod carriage, and a band of fire-flies light her way. 9. The old town of Salem was once a famous sea-port, and ships sailed from its harbor to the ends of the world. 10. Charcoal and the diamond are very unlike, yet they are composed of exactly the same substance. RULES OF SYNTAX. 163 11. The army of the enemy swept over the face of that fair land, and in its path followed famine and desolation. 12. He was not driven from his purpose by danger, neither was he discouraged by repeated failures. 13. No two watches go just alike, yet each man believes his own 14. The way was long, the wind was cold. The minstrel was infirm and old. 15. The violets wept in the shade, but the sim came and kissed their tears away. 16 The shadows grew long, and the blue skies were gray. And the bees and the butterflies all flew away. And the dew on the grasses was falling. 17. Beautiful thoughts make a beautiful soul, and a beauti- ful soul makes a beautiful face. LESSON LXIII. RULES OF SYNTAX. To give the syntax of a word is to explain its relation, in accordance with the rules of concord, goverfi/ment, and order, to some other word or words in a sentence. Concord is the agreement in case, gender, num- ber, person, mode, or tense, of two connected words. 1. A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and person ; and the subject of a finite verb, when a noun or a pronoun, is always in the nominative case ; as, A man walks. All men walk. I am to hlam,e. They are to blame. Notice the following variations of this rule:* ♦ For further variations of the rule see the author's "Advanced Les- sons in English Grammar," pp. 243-245. ie4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (a) When a subject consists of two or more nouns or pro- nouns connected by omd, the predicate verb must be in the plural ; as, John cmd Mary were here. (b) Sometimes the connected nouns refer to the same thing. In that case, if the nouns are in the singular number, the verb also must be in the singular ; as. My friend cmd teacher is here. (c) When the parts of a compound subject are in the sin- gular nimiber and are connected by or, either — or, or neither — nor, the verb must be singular ; as, John or Ma/ry was here. Either John or Ma/ry was here. Neither John nor Ma/ry was here. (d) A collective noun denoting a group of objects regarded as mie whole, takes a verb in the singular; but when the noun denotes a group regarded as individuals, it takes a verb in the plural ; as. The doss was la/rge. The whole doss were delighted with the lesson. Caution 1.— Do not use a plural verb after a singular sub- ject modified by an adjective phrase that is introduced by with. We should say. The rebel chief, with aU his attenda/nts, was (not were) captv/red. Caution 2. — ^When two subject nouns are connected by the conjunction as weU as, the verb agrees in person and number with the first ; as, TJie hoys, as weU as their sister, deserve commendation. Caution 3. — ^Never use a singular verb after you or they. Do not say you was there, or was you tTiere f Caution 4. — Do not mistake a noun in a modifying phrase for the subject of a verb ; as. The eating of apples promotes (not promote) health. Caution 5. — When the subject is a relative pronoim, be sure that the number and person of the verb are the same as the number and person of the antecedent of the relative. We say, I%is is the only one of the hooks that is worth reading, because the antecedent of that is one; but This is one of the hest books that have appea/red tMs yea/r, because the antecedent of that is hooks. Caution 6. — Beware of incorrect contractions of verbs with RULI18 OF 8TNTAZ. 166 the adverb not Do not use Se don% It don% for Se does not. It does not. Do not use You da'sn% He da*sn% for Tou dare not, etc. 2. Every adjective, or its equivalent, modifies the meaning of a noun expressed or understood. Caution.— TT^is, that, each, every, either, and neither, when used as adjectives, are joined to singular nouns ; these and those are joined to plural nouns. 8. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gen- der, number, and person. See pp. 40-49. 4. The subject and the complement of an intransi- tive verb, or of a verb in the passive voice, of in- complete predication, agree in case ; as. We thought it was he. Wham did you think him to be f He was elected Freaident. See Lessons XXXVI. and XXXIX. 5. When a noun or a pronoun explains the mean- ing of another noun or pronoun, the explaining noun or pronoun agrees in case, or is in apposition, with the noun explained. See Lesson XXXVIII. 6. Verbs in subordinate clauses, as well as infini- tives and gerunds, must take the form required by the tense of the principal verb. Caution 1. — ^When an infinitive refers to a time coincident with, or after, that of the principal verb, the present mflnitive should be used ; as, I intended to go. Caution 2. — When an infinitive refers to a time prior to that indicated by the principal verb, the perfect infinitive should be used ; as, Se is reported to have sailed yesterday. Caution 3. — See that the tense of a verb in a subordinate 166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. clause does not conflict with the tense of the verb in the prin- cipal clause ; as, If I have the book, I wiU send it. If I had the hooky I would send it. If I had had the hook, I would have sent it. Caution 4. — ^Verbs joined by coordinate conjunctions should be in the same mode and tense; as, I am sure that he has been there omd has done (not dnd) what was required of hmn. Government is the power that a word has to determine the case of a noun or a pronoun. 7. Transitive verbs, and their participles and ger- unds, as well as prepositions, govern the objective cases of nouns and pronouns. See Lessons XV., XXVm., and XXXI. Caution 1.— When the object is separated by a clause from the governing word, be careful that the object is used in the objective case ; as, Hint (not he) thxii is suspicious of others, we are apt to suspect. Caution 2. — ^In interrogative sentences, be careful to distin- guish between a pronoun used as the object of a transitive verb or a preposition, and a pronoun used as a predicate comple- ment; as, Whom, (not who) did you meet? Whom (not wTio) were you walking with f Who (not whom) do you think he is? Caution 3. — Be careful to use the objective cases of the per- sonal pronouns after a preposition ; as. Between you and me (not I) there should he no difference. Caution 4.— When the object of a transitive verb is an in- jmitvve phrase, consisting of an infinitive preceded by a subject, be sure that the subject is in the objective case ; as, Let him a/nd me (not J) go. The order of words in a sentence is often very- important in determifiing the sense. 8. In the usual order of words in a sentence, RULES OF SYNTAX. 167 the subject (including modifiers) precedes the pred- icate (including modifiers). Caution.— The usual order is sometimeB reversed for the purpose of laying emphasis on some word or thought ; as, Chreal is Dicma of the Epheaicma. 9. Adjective and adverbial modifiers should be placed as near as possible to the words whose mean- ings they modify. Caution 1.— When an adverb modifies the meaning of a vert in a compound tense, the adverb comes after the first auxili^ ary if the verb is in the active voice, and before the principal verb, if it is in the passive voice ; as. Education unU always elicit respect. He wiU certainly have finished before you arHA)e, The problem can be easily solved. Caution 2.— As a general rule, adverbial clauses of time, place, or condition, precede the principal clause; as. When summer comes, the days are longer. If you wish it, I tuiU accompany you. Caution 3.-— Two phrases or clauses modifjdng the meaning of the same verb may be placed one before, the other after, the verb ; as, After a little practice, he tuill speak ivith greater ease. If you wiU aUow me, I sTwU assist you when I have finished my lesson. Caution 4.— Be careful to place the adverbs only, solely, equally, at least, immediately before the words whose meanings they modify ; as, I only spoke a few words (meaning that I did nothing else). I spoke only a few words (that is, my speech was brief). 10. When two words are used correlatively, each member of the pair should come before the same part of speech. The child was happy, not because she won the prize, but be- cause she pleased Tier mother ; it would be wrong to place voi 168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. before ha/ppy. They chose hkn not only secretary, hut also presu dent; it would be wrong to place not only before otiose. The clergy-^ ma/n spoke bitth eloquenG/y and sincerely; it would be wrong to place both before spoke. The chan/r is good for neither ornament nor use ; it would be wrong to place neither before good. The last sentence might also be written, The chadr is not good for eUher ornament or tise. 11. The article (the definite article thSj and the indefinite article a used before a consonant sound, or a/n used before a vowel sound) is repeated before connected nouns when the objects denoted are to be considered separately ; as, A noun or a pronoun may 6e the subject of a sentence. 12. The article is repeated before connected ad- jectives when they modify different nouns; as, The bUich wad the white horse are in the stable. The word Tiorse is understood after black. Caution. — ^In the expression, a hktck a/nd white dress, we speak of only one dress which cx)mbines both colors. In a blade Q/nd a white dress, we refer to two dresses. RXJLES FOR CAPITALS. 1. Begin with a capital the first word of every sentence. 2. Begin with a capital the first word of every line of poetry. 3. Begin with a capital every proper noun and every proper adjective. 4. Begin with a capital every name or title of the Deity. 5. Write the pronoun I and the interjection O with capitals. 0* Begili with capitals the names of the days of the week and the months of the year. 7* Begin with capitals the important words in the title of a book, or in the subject of any other composition. 8. Begin with a capital every title of honor or respect* RULE8 FOR PUNCTUATION. 169 9u Begin with capitals the names of points of the compass when they denote sections of a country. Gold is found in the great North-west. 10. Begin with a capital every word that denotes an important epoch or event of history. The Civil War lasted four years. 11. Begin with a capital every personified common noun. Then Peace shall smile upon us, and Plenty abide among us. 12* Begin with a capital the name of every religious denomination. 13* Begin with a capital every direct quotation, when the quo- tation is a complete sentence. The first word of an in^ direct quotation should begin with a small letter, unless it requires a capital by the operation of some other rule. Direct, — He quoted the maxim, " Honesty is the best policy." Indirect — He reminded us that honesty ia the best policy. RULES FOR PUNCTUATION I. THE COMMA. 1. A very long subject is usui/Uy separated from the predicate by a comma. That gymnastic training is good for boys, is clear. 2. Two or more words in the same grammatical relation are sep- arated from each other by commas, unless all the con- junctions are expressed. Poetry, music, and painting are fine arts. 3. When words connected by a conjunction follow in successive pairs, a comma should be inserted after each pair. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I am for the Declaration. 4. A noun, a phrase, or a clause in apposition, unless it is closely connected with the word it modifies, should be set off by commas. Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles, preached at Athens. 5. An appositive adjective or adjective phrase is set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas. General Wolfe, wounded and dying, learned of his great victory. 170 ENQLmH GRAMMAR, 6. An adverbial phrase preceding the verb and its subject, is UStuxUy followed by a comma. Beyond the shadow of the ship, I watched the water- snakes. 7. An adverbial phrase coming between the subject and the verb, or between the parts of the predicate, is set o£f by commas. The soldier, from force of habit, obeys. 8. The following adverbs, particularly when they begin a sen- tence, are v,»U4My set off by commas: again first lastly moreover now besides secondly finally namely indeed however thirdly, etc. hence nay thus 9. The name of a person addressed is set off by the comma. 10* When the same object follows two or more prepositions, a comma is inserted after each preposition. He was sent by, and he acted for, the people of the village. 11. A relative clause, when it is not restrictive, is separated by a comma from the noun or pronoun whose meaning it modifies. Megtrictive, — ^I will tell it to the man that is at the gate. Not restrictive.— 1 will tell it to my father, who is waiting to hear it. Ii2« When an adverbial clause precedes the principal clause, the former is followed by a comma. If he come soon, I shall be glad. 13. When an abverbial clause is introduced within a principal clause, or within a subordinate clause, it is preceded and followed by commas. The man is, as I suppose, your friend. 14. A quotation is set off from the rest of the sentence by a com- ma or commas, unless it is formally introduced. Beware of the man who says, " I am on the eve of a dis- covery." '*Art is long," says Longfellow, **and time is fleeting." 15. The omission of a predicate verb is indicated by a comma. To err is human • to forgive, divine. RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 171 10« Independent . clauses, when they are not themselves subdi- vided by commas, and are related in meaning, are sepa- rated by commas. On they go, and still more springs come, and the rivers grow, larger and larger. II. THE SEMICOLON. 1. The clauses of a compound sentence, when they are themselves subdivided by commas, are separated by semicolons. Having detained you so long already, I shall not trespass longer upon your patience ; but, before concluding, I wish you to observe this truth. 2. When a quotation or an illustration is introduced by as or na/mely, a semicolon should be placed before the introduc- tory word, and a comma after it. An island is a portion of land surrounded by water ; as, Aus- tralia, Iceland. III. THE COLON. 1. The clauses of a compound sentence, when they are themr selves subdivided by semicolons, are separated by colons. The quality of mercy is not strained ; it droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven upon the place beneath : it is twice blessed ; it blesseth him that gives and him that takes. 2. A quotation or an enumeration of particulars, when formally introduced, is preceded by a colon. Emerson says this: **The plague of society is egotists." The following metals are found in California : gold, silver, etc. IV. THE PERIOD. 1. A period should be placed after every declarative and every imperative sentence. 2* A period should be placed after every abbreviation. Mr. Hon. Penn. LL.D. A.M. V. THE INTERROGATION POINT. An interrogative word, phrase, or sentence should be followed by an interrogation point. Where did you see him? In the house? When^ 172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, VI. THE EXCLAMATION POINT. An exclamation point should be placed after every exclamatory word, phrase, or sentence. Stand I The ground's your own, my braves I VII. OTHER MARKS. The Dash is used 1. When a sentence breaks off abruptly. I don't believe that the train — but I'm mistaken; it's com- ing now. 2* When there is a sudden change in the subject. He did not understand — he was very dull — the teacher's explanation. 3. Sometimes before words used to explain the meaning of pre- ceding words. We were abundantly provided with all kinds of good things — pies, cake, fruits, etc. The Parentheses are used To inclose a remark that might be omitted without destroying the sense of the sentence. Washington (he was the first President) died in the year 1799. The Apostrophe is used 1. To denote the omission of a letter or of letters. I'll come before you've gone. S. To denote the possessive case. The sailor's last resting-place was beneath the ocean's waves. The Hyphen is used 1. To join the parts of compound words and expressions. 2. To indicate that one or more syllables of a word will be found at the beginning of the next line below. Quotation Marks are used To show that a passage was written or spoken by some other person exactly as given. "Come in," he said, "and tell us all about your journey." i